Hasil untuk "Commercial law"

Norbert Varga

During the interwar period, economic conditions in Hungary changed significantly, which also had an impact on the development of law, including private and commercial law. The Hungarian Cartel Act of 1931 legalized cartels under certain conditions. This resulted in cartels being placed under supervision and their operations being controlled in the public interest. This was the most important aim of the state, which was enshrined in legislation against cartels. The question is what the real purpose of cartels was, what motivated them and kept them alive during the period under review. The aim of the cartels can be examined on the basis of the cartel agreements found in the archives. The aim of this study is to use archival sources to reveal the aim of the cartel, which fundamentally determined its organizational structure.

Mahdi Ebadi, Zoleykha Ghaffari roodsari

AbstractDuring the Qajar era, Iran's growing engagement with foreign nations led to Guilan being designated as a border territory, primarily due to its unique geographical conditions. The region's fertile soil and abundant water resources for agriculture attracted significant political and commercial interest from abroad. As Guilan's prominence increased in political, commercial, and social spheres during this time with multiple foreign consulates established in Rasht, the local population experienced a notable influx of foreign nationals. This foreign presence and support for their citizens' interests in Guilan led to various outcomes, including some residents accepting foreign citizenship. This socio-political issue prompted protests from a coalition of freedom advocates and open-minded locals in Guilan, leading the Qajar government to implement measures aimed at preventing the persistence of this phenomenon. This study employed a historical approach and a descriptive-analytical method to explore the adoption of foreign citizenship among Guilan's populace during the Qajar period from 1882 to 1921 AD (1300-1339 AH). It investigated the emergence of this phenomenon, elucidating both the efforts of foreign entities to recruit Guilan citizens and the Qajar government's measures to mitigate this societal trend. The research findings identified key factors contributing to residential migration, including the influx of foreign nationals to Guilan, extensive support from governments like Russia and the Ottomans for their citizens, inadequate support from the Qajar government for local residents, and the poor conduct of governors and local leaders.Keywords: Iran during the Qajar Era, Relations between Iran and Russia, Relations between Iran and the Ottoman Empire, Guilan during the Qajar Era, Change of Citizenship.IntroductionDuring the Qajar era, particularly from the Naserid period (1848-1896 AD), the land of Guilan gained considerable importance in Iran's foreign relations and for foreign governments. The construction of the Rasht-Tehran gravel road facilitated the movement of political and commercial representatives from foreign countries through the Caspian Sea and towards Tehran. Guilan's strategic geographical location and fertile land made it a gateway to Europe. This, in turn, led to a significant influx of foreign nationals into the province. The establishment of various foreign government consulates in Guilan, including those from Russia, England, France, and the Ottoman Empire, and the consuls' support for their citizens, strengthened the positions of these foreign nationals in the region. As the presence of foreign nationals in Guilan increased, an intriguing socio-political phenomenon emerged during the Qajar period - the change of nationality by a portion of Guilan's population. This was an unprecedented occurrence as some residents sought to place themselves under the protection of foreign governments by changing their citizenship, while maintaining their presence and residence in Iran and Guilan. This phenomenon created problems and difficulties for the society and residents of this part of Iran, warranting historical investigation and study of its various dimensions. The present study aimed to explain and interpret the various factors and reasons behind the emergence of this socio-political phenomenon, as well as its social consequences for the society of Guilan during the Qajar era, based on historical sources.Materials & MethodsThis research adopted a historical approach and employed a descriptive-analytical method to investigate the phenomenon of Guilan's residents accepting foreign citizenship during the Qajar period from 1882 to 1921 AD (1300-1334 AH). The study examined the efforts of foreign governments to increase their nationals among the people of Guilan, as well as the measures taken by the Qajar government to prevent this social phenomenon. Examining the reasons and factors behind the acceptance of foreign citizenship in Guilan Province and its consequences could shed light on an important aspect of the challenges faced by the Qajar government during this period of Iran's history. However, written documents had not paid much attention to the problems related to the phenomenon of citizenship change in Guilan during this time. Therefore, this study relied on historical documents from the Qajar period, as well as archival documents related to the issue of foreign citizenship, to investigate these issues and problems. The aim was to study the adoption of foreign citizenship as an emerging social phenomenon in Guilan during the Qajar era based on archival and primary source materials. This necessitated an examination of the actions of the Qajar government and the policies of foreign governments in Guilan Province.Research Findings:The findings of this research indicated that several factors contributed to the change of citizenship among the people of Guilan during the Qajar period:ajar rulers’ behaviors towards the people of Guilan, including imposing heavy taxes and supporting foreigners to purchase real estate in Guilan, despite the prohibition law, which led to disputes and conflicts between the rulers and the provincial authorities of Guilan over land acquisition.The inappropriate behaviors of landowners, who often leased their agricultural lands to foreigners to avoid heavy taxes, which caused problems for the Guilani citizens as the new foreign landowners acted according to their own regulations to maximize profits, disregarding the status of the local population.The all-round support provided by foreign governments to their citizens' illegal activities in Guilan, which strengthened the positions of foreign nationals and weakened the Iranian government's ability to support its own citizens, causing frustration among the local population.The significant presence of foreigners in Guilan, which led to tensions between domestic and foreign nationals over civil, financial, and commercial issues, ultimately resulting in the detriment of the Qajar government and Iranian citizens.The consequences of this phenomenon of citizenship change included the increasing number of foreign nationals in Guilan, stabilization of the positions of foreign countries in the region, and creation of divisions and conflicts among the people of Guilan.Discussion of Results & ConclusionThe findings of this documentary research indicated that during the Qajar era, the economic and political importance of Guilan province provided the basis for a large influx of foreign nationals to the region. Foreign consulates and representatives actively supported the positions of their citizens in Guilan, providing them with comprehensive assistance to obtain greater economic and political benefits. The support provided by foreign governments to their nationals, along with the collaboration of some Qajar rulers, officials, and agents of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in helping foreign citizens acquire property in Guilan, contributed significantly to this phenomenon. Additionally, the mistreatment of local residents and landowners by the rulers and authorities coupled with the lack of comprehensive support from the Qajar government towards its own subjects and nationals led some people of Guilan to change their citizenship and accept those of foreign countries, including Russia and the Ottoman Empire. While the Qajar government made efforts to prevent these problems, the encouragement and assistance provided by some rulers, scholars, and landowners ultimately led to the escalation of the phenomenon of citizenship change among the people of Guilan, demonstrating the complex interplay of political, economic, and social factors that shaped this emerging issue during the Qajar period.

Anurag Dutta, Liton Chandra Voumik, Lakshmanan Kumarasankaralingam et al.

Data are produced every single instant in the modern era of technological breakthroughs we live in today and is correctly termed as the lifeblood of today’s world; whether it is Google or Meta, everyone depends on data to survive. But, with the immense surge in technological boom comes several backlashes that tend to pull it down; one similar instance is the data morphing or modification of the data unethically. In many jurisdictions, the phenomenon of data morphing is considered a severe offense, subject to lifelong imprisonment. There are several cases where data are altered to encrypt reliable details. Recently, in March 2023, Silicon Valley Bank collapsed following unrest prompted by increasing rates. Silicon Valley Bank ran out of money as entrepreneurial investors pulled investments to maintain their businesses afloat in a frigid backdrop for IPOs and individual financing. The bank’s collapse was the biggest since the financial meltdown of 2008 and the second-largest commercial catastrophe in American history. By confirming the “Silicon Valley Bank” stock price data, we will delve further into the actual condition of whether there has been any data morphing in the data put forward by the Silicon Valley Bank. To accomplish the very same, we applied a very well-known statistical paradigm, Benford’s Law and have cross-validated the results using comparable statistics, like Zipf’s Law, to corroborate the findings. Benford’s Law has several temporal proximities, known as conformal ranges, which provide a closer examination of the extent of data morphing that has occurred in the data presented by the various organizations. In this research for validating the stock price data, we have considered the opening, closing, and highest prices of stocks for a time frame of 36 years, between 1987 and 2023. Though it is worth mentioning that the data used for this research are coarse-grained, still since the validation is subjected to a larger time horizon of 36 years; Benford’s Law and the similar statistics used in this article can point out any irregularities, which can result in some insight into the situation and into whether there has been any data morphing in the Stock Price data presented by SVB or not. This research has clearly shown that the stock price variations of the SVB diverge much from the permissible ranges, which can give a conclusive direction on further investigations in this issue by the responsible authorities. In addition, readers of this article must note that the conclusion formed about the topic discussed in this article is objective and entirely based on statistical analysis and factual figures presented by the Silicon Valley Bank Group.

David Fabio Esborraz

El artículo analiza, desde la perspectiva del derecho comparado, cuánto contribuye el nuevo Código Civil de Puerto Rico al desarrollo y consolidación del sistema jurídico romanístico, al reafirmar su pertenencia a la tradición del derecho romano, y cómo se alinea con los postulados de las codificaciones civiles más vanguardistas, al ajustarse en muchas de sus regulaciones a los nuevos paradigmas del derecho privado de inicios del siglo XXI. Todo ello, a pesar de tratarse de un ordenamiento fuertemente asediado por el Common Law.

Maja Petrović

The attitude of the society towards children is conditioned by its cultural, social, economic, and political aspects. However, violence against children is a historical phenomenon present in every society, regardless of its level of development. The responsibility lies with the state and society to enable and ensure the equality of children’s rights with other members of the community and to protect children from violence, considering the fact that children cannot do this by themselves. Destructiveness of the consequences of violence against children indicates the necessity of a systematic fight against this phenomenon. The subject of this paper is to present the etiology of violence against children, i.e., the causes influencing the influx of violence against children, as well as the phenomenological aspect of this occurrence. In this context, this paper aims to indicate the causes, characteristics, and manifestations of violence against children through the presentation of empirical knowledge. The forms of violence against children overlap, but it is necessary to distinguish them in order to create more effective measures of their prevention and suppression.

Shahrian Elahe, Masihi Mohsen

Constructing an accurate geological model of the reservoir is a preliminary to make any reliable prediction of a reservoir’s performance. Afterward, one needs to simulate the flow to predict the reservoir’s dynamic behaviour. This process usually is associated with high computational costs. Therefore, alternative methods such as the percolation approach for rapid estimation of reservoir efficiency are quite desirable. This study tries to address the Well Testing (WT) interpretation of heterogeneous reservoirs, constructed from two extreme permeabilities, 0 and K. In particular, we simulated a drawdown test on typical site percolation mediums, occupied to fraction “p” at a constant rate Q/h, to compute the well-known pressure derivative (dP/dlnt). This derivative provides us with “apparent” permeability values, a significant property to move forward with flow prediction. It is good to mention that the hypothetical wellbore locates in the middle of the reservoir with assumed conditions. Commercial software utilized to perform flow simulations and well test analysis. Next, the pressure recorded against time at different realizations and values of p. With that information provided, the permeability of the medium is obtained. Finally, the permeability change of this reservoir is compared to the permeability alteration of a homogeneous one and following that, its dependency on the model parameters has been analysed. The result shows a power-law relation between average permeability (considering all realizations) and the occupancy probability “p”. This conclusion helps to improve the analysis of well testing for heterogeneous reservoirs with percolation structures.

Editorial Board

In the article of the author De Negri Laura PhD under the title „Cross-border succession issues and the attempts of Serbian legislation to be harmonized with the European legislation on succession matters“ published in the journal Law – theory and practice(issue number 3, vol. 38, p. 1). Due to the technical mistake the incorrect DOI has been published. The Editorial board apologies to the author and our readers. Instead 10.5937/ptp2103001Д correct DOI is 10.5937/ptp2103001D.

Anja Louis

Television dramas have an enormous discursive power to shape national identity in the form of shared experience and collective belonging. Both law and visual culture are dominant discourses constituting an imagined community, which creates meaning through storytelling and performance. Spanish television is a particularly good case study, since the medium has been a vital tool of identity construction at individual, collective and national levels in a country that lived through almost 40 years of dictatorship (1939–1975). Television was thus used as a means of propaganda (1956–1975), as primary educator of democratic values (1975–1989) and as creator of a social debate (1990 onwards). This article examines law drama, law comedy and documentary/docu-drama over two periods of production/reception – the Transition from dictatorship to democracy in the 1980s and the first two decades of the new millennium – in order to compare changes in national culture and collective identity construction. What is most striking in all shows is the hybridisation of genres: to a greater or lesser extent all shows contain elements of workplace dramas and/or domestic sitcoms, making the private political.

Mamoru Amemiya, Tomoya Ohyama

Abstract This brief report aims to reveal crime concentration at the district level in Tokyo and Osaka, Japan, two cities characterized by low crime rates. Eight types of property crimes that occurred between 2008 and 2017 in Tokyo and Osaka and had been aggregated by the census enumeration district were analyzed using the Gini coefficient based on the Poisson-Gamma method. The results indicated three patterns. First, crime concentration was identified. Second, the degree of concentration depended upon crime type. Commercial burglary was the most concentrated crime type, and theft from vehicle and theft from vending machine were the most dispersed. Third, crime concentration patterns either remained stable or became more concentrated over time. Additionally, while theft of bicycle was found to display stable concentration levels over time, the concentration level of purse snatching was fluid. On the basis of the results, this report discusses the possibility of establishing the “Law of Crime Concentration” (LCC) in two Japanese cities.

Lucas Campio Pinha

O presente artigo tem como objetivo formalizar um modelo para analisar de que forma a celeridade e a morosidade na punição de carteis pelas autoridades de defesa da concorrência impacta os incentivos à formação de carteis. O modelo tem como base um jogo infinitamente repetido em que as empresas comparam os possíveis ganhos de respeitar o acordo de cartel com os ganhos de trair o combinado. Os resultados indicam que a demora na punição aumenta os incentivos ao cartel, ao mesmo tempo em que uma demora demasiadamente longa praticamente anula o efeito do enforcement antitruste na dissuasão de carteis. Os resultados fornecem importantes recomendações para as autoridades antitruste ao redor do mundo e para o CADE no Brasil, principalmente sobre a importância da celeridade na punição de infrações anticompetitivas.

Marko Hoyhtya, Kalle Lahetkangas, Jani Suomalainen et al.

Commercial mobile operators’ networks will be used for public safety communications due to demand for wireless broadband services, new applications, and smart devices. Existing dedicated professional mobile radio networks, such as terrestrial trunked radio, Tetrapol, and project 25, are based on narrowband technologies and hence their data bandwidth is limited. This paper studies how critical communications needed, e.g., by ambulance personnel, rescue squads, and law enforcement agencies can be implemented over a 5G network. The most important technology enablers are described and test network architectures used in our project given. We focus on two different use cases. First, how to enable priority communications over a commercial mobile network. Second, how to create rapidly deployable networks for emergency and tactical operations. Tests done with the implemented systems in real networks show that both approaches are very promising for future critical users. Techniques such as network slicing and licensed shared access provide means to support mission critical applications in any environment.

Daniela Corchuelo Uribe, Mónica Alejandra León Gil

El proceso monitorio es una herramienta novedosa en Colombia. Se erige como la forma más eficaz de solucionar controversias cuando los acreedores no disponen de título ejecutivo, y busca garantizar la tutela efectiva del crédito, procurando la celeridad y eficiencia de la administración de justicia. Su característica esencial es la inversión del contradictorio. Allí, el deudor manifiesta las razones por las que considera no deber, por medio de una oposición, que según el Código debe ser fundada, sin que determine su alcance. Este estudio busca dotar de contenido la oposición con el fin de ofrecer herramientas al intérprete, para que decida atendiendo a los principios del derecho procesal.

Ljuba Slijepčević, Zoran Pavlović, Nenad Stefanović

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Luiza Andrade Machado

Este trabalho tem por objetivo a análise das interações existentes entre dois importantes mecanismos de combate a cartéis: os programas de leniência e as ações de responsabilidade civil concorrencial. Com base nas experiências dos Estados Unidos e União Europeia, são avaliadas alternativas à legislação brasileira que possibilitem uma interação coordenada e equilibrada entre a aplicação pública e privada do Direito Concorrencial, de forma a conferir maior efetividade à política de combate a cartéis do Brasil. Nesse sentido, são analisadas, especialmente (i) a limitação ao acesso e a utilização de informações obtidas através de programa de leniência em ações de reparação civil; (ii) a limitação da responsabilidade solidária do delator; e (iii) a possibilidade de concessão de imunidade civil aos beneficiários da leniência.

Editor Revista

Paul COMȘA

Mostly in consumer contracts, the economic and juridical imbalances between trade participants give the party of superior negotiating strength a considerable advantage by defining terms in advance. Consequently, an unfair business-to-consumer practice emerged in which sellers and suppliers impose a series of non-negotiable terms to the detriment of the consumer. Romanian regulations tried to efficiently tackle this problem being driven by the new European legislative trends. Law no.193/2000, which is the main regulation in this field, has been amended twice in the last two years and a series of new provisions on unfair contractual terms were introduced by Law no. 72/2013 and the new Romanian Civil Code. The main objective of the Romanian legislator was to reduce the massive number of lawsuits regarding unfair terms in consumer contracts and to provide a more effective protection for consumers. However, the new provisions also made changes which favour banks, insurance companies and other businesses that often insert predetermined terms in contracts.

Fernando Hinestrosa

Matteo Dellacasa

En la jurisprudencia italiana se ha consolidado el enfoque según la cual el juez está legitimado para controlar el ejercicio del derecho de retractación discrecional. Ante una solicitud expresa de la parte, el juez, incluso, está obligado a verificar la conformidad de la conducta de quien ejerce el derecho con el canon de la buena fe contractual. La reflexión de la doctrina italiana se concentra prevalentemente en la dialéctica entre autonomía privada y control judicial, mientras es menos frecuentado el terreno de los remedios que siguen a la retractación arbitraria. En este segundo perfil se concentra el presente escrito. En primer lugar, se afirma que el control jurisdiccional de la retractación ad nutum es oportuno en relación con todos los contratos, y no solo en aquellos caracterizados por la asimetría de poderes entre las partes. El remedio generalmente aplicable a favor de la parte que sufre la retractación arbitraria se identifica con el resarcimiento del interés negativo: el contratante desilusionado puede obtener el reembolso de los gastos asumidos y el resarcimiento de las oportunidades de ganancias perdidas como consecuencia de la confianza depositada en la realización del negocio. En segundo lugar, se delinean los criterios que permiten identificar la retractación arbitraria. En fin, se analiza si la existencia de una relación de dependencia económica entre la empresa que se retracta arbitrariamente y su contraparte contractual puede justificar la aplicación de un remedio diferente del resarcimiento del interés negativo. El autor está orientado a responder afirmativamente. Si la empresa que sufre la retractación ilegítima ha realizado inversiones específicas –centradas en las exigencias de la contraparte y, por esto, difícilmente recuperables–, el resarcimiento del interés negativo ofrece una tutela parcial e inadecuada. Los remedios aplicables, en cambio, deben salvaguardar el interés positivo de la empresa dependiente, colocándola en la misma situación en que se habría encontrado si la relación se hubiese concretado.

José Félix Chamie

Al igual que en el sistema de tradición romanista, la disciplina del ‘riesgo por eventos sobrevenidos’ en el common law estadounidense muestra una progresiva extensión de los confines de las reglas impossibilium nulla obligatio est y casus a nullo praestantur, y esto mediante el planteamiento de las doctrinas de la ‘frustración’ del contrato y de la ‘impracticabilidad’ comercial. En materia contractual, el sistema de common law tampoco escapó a los problemas derivados del riesgo en el cumplimiento y de la tensión entre la regla pacta sunt servanda y la necesaria gestión del contrato desequilibrado por eventos sobrevenidos no imputables a las partes. La argumentación contenida en esta materia no es del todo extraña al jurista del sistema de derecho romano, las hipótesis de imposibilidad son familiares y la ‘impracticabilidad’ tiene mucho de la que en el área germánica se denomina ‘inexigibilidad’; ni que decir de la evocación de la teoría de las bases del negocio y de la buena fe y la equidad en el UCC. Sin abordar en detalle la evolución jurisprudencial del concepto de ‘impracticabilidad’, este artículo evidencia cómo maduró dicho concepto gracias a la atención de las cortes sobre las repercusiones económicas que involucran la ejecución del contrato de duración, haciendo uso del método casuístico propio de este sistema y ampliando la disciplina de la imposibilidad sobrevenida más allá de los límites de la imposibilidad material o jurídica, ampliando de igual forma la perspectiva dogmática con pliegues similares a la experiencia de nuestro sistema y apoyándose incluso en sus rudimentos.

Saúl Sotomonte Sotomonte