Hasil untuk "American literature"

D. Mayhew, V. Mendonca, B. Murthy

The American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) physical status is a tool commonly used to classify a patient's physical fitness before surgery. Since its introduction in 1941 it has undergone very few modifications to improve its reliability and to eliminate subjectivity, despite vast changes in both surgical and anaesthetic technique. We present the history of the ASA physical status and review the literature on its applicability to contemporary anaesthetic practice.

Luigi Vaccaro

Since their initial appearance in the scientific literature, the terms "green" and "sustainable" have been increasingly used and are nowadays ubiquitously present in the terminology of several research areas. The seminal origin of what is considered “green chemistry” today might be ascribed to the launch of the Responsible Care® initiative by the American Chemistry Council (ACC) [1] and to the Brundtland report [2]. The concept was then further refined and completed with the Pollution Prevention Act (approved by the American Congress [3]) and the definition of the Anastas and Warner’s 12 principles of green chemistry [4,5]. Very generally, green chemistry may be considered as the scientific and economical context in which academia, industry and government are attempting to converge their efforts for the development of a sustainable civilization.

B. Runyon

Winifred D. Wandersee

R. Bradley, Robert F Corwyn, H. Mcadoo et al.

J. Peugh, Craig K. Enders

A. Dajani, K. Taubert, W. Wilson et al.

Anup Agrawal, J. Jaffe, G. Mandelker

P. Eisinger

S. Lyng

P. Higgins, J. Johanson

C. Walsh

B. Husted, José Milton de Sousa-Filho

Abstract We examine the effect of board structure on Environmental, Social and Governance (ESG) disclosure in Latin America. Previous studies have presented diverse results, but Latin American companies are rarely studied. We argue that the institutional context of Latin America should change some of the relationships between board structure and ESG disclosure ordinarily observed in the literature. We tested our hypotheses about the influence of board size, women on the board, CEO duality, and independent directors, on ESG disclosure using a four-year panel collected from the Bloomberg and Capital IQ databases. We found that board size and independent directors impact ESG disclosure positively, but women on the board and CEO duality impact ESG disclosure negatively. These findings provide new insights into ESG disclosure in Latin America.

Ilya A. Strebulaev

M. Gittler, A. Davis

Luca Mora, R. Bolici, M. Deakin

J. Mechanick, R. Kushner, H. Sugerman et al.

G. Crespi, Pluvia Zúñiga

This study examines the determinants of technological innovation and its impact on firm labor productivity across six Latin American countries (Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Panama, and Uruguay) using micro data from innovation surveys. In line with the literature, in all countries firms that invest in knowledge are more able to introduce new technological advances, and those that innovate have greater labor productivity than those that do not. Yet firm-level determinants of innovation investment are much more heterogeneous than in OECD countries. Cooperation, foreign ownership, and exporting increase the propensity to invest in innovation activities and encourage innovation investment in only half of the countries studied. Scientific and market sources of information have little or no impact on firm innovation efforts, which illustrates the weak linkages that characterize national innovation systems in those countries. The results in terms of productivity, however, highlight the importance of innovation in enabling firms to improve economic performance and catch up.

Ilya Sokov

Introduction. The article’s purpose is to identify new challenges in Latin America and the Caribbean (hereinafter – LAC) countries regarding the implementation of the UN Sustainable Development Goals (hereinafter – SDGs). The scientific novelty consists in highlighting the main trends, factors, and signs in the development of LAC countries in the third decade of the 21st century and ways to overcome new challenges of their sustainable development goals. Methods and materials. The messages from news agencies in the USA and Latin American countries were used as materials for the study. Analysis. An analysis of the formal approaches of the United Nations to the process of creating sustainable development was carried out on the basis of foreign sources and literature, including the conditions and possibilities for the implementation of SDGs 1, 2, and 8 by the LAC countries; conceptual differences in the approaches of the United Nations and LAC to the implementation of the SDGs in the context of contemporary turbulence in regional and global politics; and the emergence of new conditions for their cooperation with the leading world powers were identified. Results. The author’s article succeeded in clarifying the possible results from the UN approaches to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals of SDG-2030 in his article. It has been established that LAC countries are unable to fulfill them either on their own or with the help of international organizations. The main goals of SDGs 1, 2, and 8 remain unattainable, both due to the expected decline in economic growth in the period 2026–2029 and the social situation of the population in LAC countries. Past problems of cross-border crime, drug trafficking, extortion, and kidnapping are causing new internal displacement of millions of people. Despite the growing number of prisoners in LAC countries, the problem of crime remains one of the main concerns of Latin American governments. The problem of migration exodus is being resolved very slowly, and its negative impact remains almost at the same level, and in some countries, such as Haiti, Cuba, Colombia, Venezuela, and El Salvador, this problem is growing. In addition, new negative factors have been added, hindering the implementation of the UN SDGs. These are negative environmental and climatic factors in Latin America, the American policy of mass deportations of Latin Americans from the USA, which creates additional pressure among the most vulnerable segments of the population, and the American tariff policy in the Latin American region. At the same time, a “window of opportunity” is opening for LAC countries to enter the world stage to expand their cooperation with countries from other continents in Africa and Eurasia, both directly and within the framework of BRICS and the Chinese Belt and Road Initiative.

Tohid Teymori

This study examines the trickster archetype within the narrative of Zāl and Simorgh in Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh. The trickster, a mythological figure characterized by ambivalence, shape-shifting, resourcefulness, and divine intervention, occupies a significant role across various cultural traditions. Drawing upon established theoretical frameworks, this research identifies Zāl and Simorgh as a trickster within Iranian mythology. The analysis focuses on key trickster attributes—including shapeshifting, wisdom, and the capacity to disrupt and reconstitute social order. Zāl, marked by his extraordinary birth and upbringing by Simorgh, embodies a liminal identity that facilitates intervention in pivotal events. Simorgh, in turn, functions as a supernatural guide and healer, contributing to the restoration of equilibrium and the revelation of hidden truths. A close reading of the Rostam and Esfandiar episode demonstrates how Zāl and Simorgh employ cunning and esoteric knowledge to challenge oppressive power structures and institute a renewed order. This study underscores the significance of the trickster archetype in Iranian mythic traditions and elucidates the roles of Zāl and Simorgh as agents of transformation and balance within the Persian cultural discourse. Keywords: Trickster, Zāl, Simorgh, Shahnameh, Mythology. IntroductionThe trickster archetype represents one of the most significant and beloved figures in world mythology, characterized by paradoxical qualities where positive attributes typically outweigh negative ones, though this balance varies across different mythological traditions. As liminal beings existing between worlds, tricksters challenge established laws, confront deities, and disrupt social and cultural norms. While often depicted as deceiving ordinary people, tricksters more importantly challenge those in positions of power, undermining the dominion of kings, heroes, and the powerful through cunning and artifice.This study examines the trickster archetype within the narrative framework of Zāl and Simorgh in Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh, positioning these figures within the broader context of Iranian mythology. The research addresses a significant gap in Iranian mythological studies, as the trickster concept, despite its prominence in global mythology, has remained largely unexplored in Persian literary scholarship. By applying established theoretical frameworks from folklore, psychoanalysis, mythology, and anthropology, this investigation seeks to illuminate the transformative roles of Zāl and Simorgh as agents of change and balance within Persian cultural discourse. Materials and MethodsThe methodological approach employs a comprehensive theoretical framework drawing primarily from the foundational works of Paul Radin and Carl Gustav Jung on the trickster archetype. Radin’s conception of the trickster as a “culture-bringer” who facilitates societal transformation from lower to higher levels of civilization provides a crucial analytical lens. Jung’s psychological interpretation, viewing the trickster as a representation of the collective unconscious and undifferentiated human consciousness retaining its animal nature, offers complementary insights into the archetype’s enduring significance.The analysis incorporates perspectives from various scholars, including Claude Lévi-Strauss’s structural approach to mythological dualities, Joseph Campbell’s hero archetype theory, and Mary Douglas’s anthropological insights on social order disruption. The study employs close textual reading of Shahnameh, focusing particularly on key episodes including Zāl’s birth and upbringing by Simorgh, and the pivotal Rostam and Esfandiar confrontation. Comparative analysis with trickster figures from other cultural traditions—including Loki from Norse mythology, Anansi from West African folklore, Coyote from Native American traditions, and Prometheus from Greek mythology—provides cross-cultural context for understanding the unique characteristics of the Iranian trickster manifestation. Research FindingsThe investigation reveals that Zāl and Simorgh collectively embody the essential characteristics of the trickster archetype within Iranian mythology. Key findings of the study include:Extraordinary Birth and Liminal Identity: Zāl’s albinism marks him as fundamentally different from birth, leading to his abandonment and subsequent raising by Simorgh. This unusual upbringing creates a liminal identity existing between human society and the supernatural realm, a defining characteristic of trickster figures.Shape-shifting and Duality: The relationship between Zāl and Simorgh demonstrates the trickster’s capacity for transformation and dual existence. Simorgh functions as both a physical being and Zāl’s spiritual essence, while Zāl himself bridges the animal, human, and divine realms.Wisdom and Problem-solving: Zāl’s renowned wisdom, acquired through Simorgh’s tutelage and his own dedicated study, enables him to serve as advisor and mediator in critical situations. His knowledge encompasses both earthly learning and supernatural wisdom, positioning him as a crucial problem-solver in times of crisis.Shamanic Attributes: Zāl exhibits shamanic characteristics through his ability to summon Simorgh via the ritual burning of the sacred feather, accessing supernatural assistance when confronting seemingly insurmountable challenges. This shamanic connection enables intervention in the natural order when necessary.Divine Intervention and Social Transformation: In the Rostam-Esfandiar episode, Zāl and Simorgh’s intervention challenges corrupt power structures represented by Goshtasp and Esfandiar’s ambitions, ultimately facilitating a restoration of proper governance and social order. Discussion of Results and ConclusionsThe findings demonstrate that Zāl and Simorgh function as a unified trickster entity, challenging oppressive power structures while maintaining cosmic and social balance. Unlike tricksters in other traditions who often act from self-interest, the Zāl-Simorgh complex operates primarily for societal benefit, distinguishing the Iranian trickster tradition. The Rostam-Esfandiar confrontation exemplifies the trickster’s role in exposing corruption and facilitating necessary social transformation. Esfandiar’s invulnerability, granted through Zoroastrian blessing, represents a sacred power corrupted by personal ambition. Zāl and Simorgh’s intervention—revealing the secret of targeting Esfandiar’s eyes with a double-headed arrow from the gaz tree—demonstrates the trickster’s function in challenging even sacred authority when it threatens social harmony. This episode reflects broader tensions between two political paradigms: the pre-Lohrasp tradition of balanced power between royal and heroic houses, and the Lohrasp-Goshtasp model concentrating all authority in the monarchy. The trickster’s intervention supports the restoration of balanced governance, suggesting Ferdowsi’s critique of absolute monarchical power. The comparative analysis reveals both universal and culturally specific aspects of the Iranian trickster. While sharing common features with global trickster figures—liminality, shape-shifting, wisdom, and social disruption—Zāl and Simorgh demonstrate unique characteristics rooted in Persian cultural values, particularly the emphasis on wisdom (kherad) and justice (dād).This study establishes Zāl and Simorgh as a distinctive trickster manifestation within Iranian mythology, contributing significantly to the theoretical understanding of the trickster archetype. The trickster archetype plays a vital but previously unrecognized role in Iranian mythological traditions, with Zāl and Simorgh embodying this function through their combined attributes and interventions. The Iranian trickster tradition emphasizes wisdom, justice, and societal benefit over the self-interested cunning often associated with tricksters in other cultures, reflecting core Persian cultural values. The Zāl-Simorgh complex serves as a mechanism for critiquing and transforming unjust power structures, particularly relevant to Ferdowsi’s historical context and his concerns about tyrannical rule. Recognition of the trickster pattern in Shahnameh opens new avenues for comparative mythological studies and a deeper understanding of Persian literary traditions. The study’s findings have implications beyond literary analysis, offering insights into mechanisms of cultural resistance, identity formation, and social transformation relevant to contemporary Iranian society. This research advances scholarship in Iranian mythology, comparative literature, and archetypal studies while demonstrating the continued relevance of ancient mythological patterns for understanding cultural dynamics and social change. Future research might explore trickster manifestations in other Persian literary works and examine the archetype’s evolution in modern Iranian literature and culture.