We present \textbf{Turn}, a compiled, actor-based programming language -- statically typed for schema inference, dynamically typed at the value level -- for agentic software: programs that reason and act autonomously by delegating inference to large language models (LLMs). Existing approaches augment general-purpose languages with frameworks, encoding critical invariants (bounded context, typed inference output, credential isolation, durable state) as application-level conventions rather than language guarantees. Turn introduces five language-level constructs that address this gap. \emph{Cognitive Type Safety} makes LLM inference a typed primitive: the compiler generates a JSON Schema from a struct definition and the VM validates model output before binding. The \emph{confidence operator} enables deterministic control flow gated on model certainty. Turn's \emph{actor-based process model}, derived from Erlang, gives each agent an isolated context window, persistent memory, and mailbox. A \emph{capability-based identity system} returns opaque, unforgeable handles from the VM host, ensuring raw credentials never enter agent memory. Finally, \emph{compile-time schema absorption} (\texttt{use schema::<protocol>}) synthesizes typed API bindings from external specifications at compile time; the \texttt{openapi} adapter is shipped with \texttt{graphql}, \texttt{fhir}, and \texttt{mcp} in active development. We describe the language design, type rules, schema semantics, and a Rust-based bytecode VM, and evaluate Turn against representative agentic workloads. Turn is open source at https://github.com/ekizito96/Turn.
The study presents linguistic description of the dynamics of Internet discourse. Nowadays, Internet discourse is not only individual speech practice, but also global communication. Linguists are naturally interested in the issues of the Internet, studies devoted to the emergence and consolidation of the corresponding linguistic means, including ones used in the Russian language, are certainly relevant. In this regard, practically relevant tasks are to consider the sufficiency of modern Russian vocabulary in the context of Internet communication and to identify its corresponding potential for further development of the Russian lexicography. The aim of this study is to analyze the lexicographic reflection of linguistic units associated with the Internet and the trends in their dictionary representation under modern conditions. The empirical possibilities of both this study and linguistic papers devoted to IT issues in general are provided by statistically significant data of modern discourse, in particular, data available through corpus methods and Internet search. To achieve the goal of the study, the representative material available in Russian National Corpus was used. In accordance with the topic of the study, the analysis was focused on the dictionaries of the Russian language: the ones interpreting it, for example, the “Modern Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” edited by T.F. Efremova, and the ones regulating real speech practice, for example, the “Russian Spelling Dictionary’ edited by V.V. Lopatin and O.E. Ivanova. The study used a set of analytical methods, including discourse analysis, component analysis, as well as synthesis, modeling, comparison, and other general scientific and linguistic methods. In general, the authors conclude that the Russian Internet discourse is highly dynamic. At the same time, the model of the ongoing changes shows that lexicographic sources reflect the dynamics of the language incompletely and selectively. The results obtained can be used in organizing scientific support for the modern Russian communication, optimizing lexicographic work, and studying a wide range of theoretical and practical issues of linguistics.
Slavic languages. Baltic languages. Albanian languages
Dependently typed programming languages such as Coq, Agda, Idris, and F*, allow programmers to write detailed specifications of their programs and prove their programs meet these specifications. However, these specifications can be violated during compilation since they are erased after type checking. External programs linked with the compiled program can violate the specifications of the original program and change the behavior of the compiled program -- even when compiled with a verified compiler. For example, since Coq does not allow explicitly allocating memory, a programmer might link their Coq program with a C program that can allocate memory. Even if the Coq program is compiled with a verified compiler, the external C program can still violate the memory-safe specification of the Coq program by providing an uninitialized pointer to memory. This error could be ruled out by type checking in a language expressive enough to indicate whether memory is initialized versus uninitialized. Linking with a program with an uninitialized pointer could be considered ill-typed, and our linking process could prevent linking with ill-typed programs. To facilitate type checking during linking, we can use type-preserving compilation, which preserves the types through the compilation process. In this ongoing work, we develop a typed intermediate language that supports dependent memory allocation, as well as a dependent-type-preserving compiler pass for memory allocation.
We present ongoing work on Guppy, a domain-specific language embedded in Python that allows users to write high-level hybrid quantum programs with complex control flow in Pythonic syntax, aiming to run them on actual quantum hardware.
In this pilot work, we are going to discuss several aspects concerning the Albanian language spoken in the Italian territory by immigrants of different generations. After an excursus on heritage languages in general, and Albanian as a heritage language in particular, we present the results of both a sociolinguistic and a linguistic survey conducted among some Albanian immigrants in Italy. The former aims at investigating the contexts of use of Albanian and Italian languages, the participants’ competence in both of them and their attitude towards code-switching. The latter is focused on the participants’ judgments of the acceptability of different types of mixed Italian–Albanian DPs, i.e., DPs where D and N are expressed in different languages, and the theoretical implications that emerge.
Today's programmers can choose from an exceptional range of programming languages, each with its own traits, purpose, and complexity. A key aspect of a language's complexity is how hard it is to compile programs in the language. While most programmers have an intuition about compilation hardness for different programming languages, no metric exists to quantify it. We introduce the compilation quotient (CQ), a metric to quantify the compilation hardness of compiled programming languages. The key idea is to measure the compilation success rates of programs sampled from context-free grammars. To this end, we fairly sample over 12 million programs in total. CQ ranges between 0 and 100, where 0 indicates that no programs compile, and 100 means that all programs compile. Our findings on 12 popular compiled programming languages show high variation in CQ. C has a CQ of 48.11, C++ has 0.60, Java has 0.27 and Haskell has 0.13. Strikingly, Rust's CQ is nearly 0, and for C, even a large fraction of very sizable programs compile. We believe CQ can help understand the differences of compiled programming languages better and help language designers.
Marta Florido-Llinàs, Álvaro M. Alhambra, David Pérez-García
et al.
We introduce regular language states, a family of quantum many-body states. They are built from a special class of formal languages, called regular, which has been thoroughly studied in the field of computer science. They can be understood as the superposition of all the words in a regular language and encompass physically relevant states such as the GHZ-, W- or Dicke-states. By leveraging the theory of regular languages, we develop a theoretical framework to describe them. First, we express them in terms of matrix product states, providing efficient criteria to recognize them. We then develop a canonical form which allows us to formulate a fundamental theorem for the equivalence of regular language states, including under local unitary operations. We also exploit the theory of tensor networks to find an efficient criterion to determine when regular languages are shift-invariant.
This paper presents a comprehensive review of contemporary works by Russian linguists on the topic of linguistic variation. The aim of the review is to identify universal foundations for systematizing the diverse manifestations of this concept in language and speech, as reflected in linguistics. The main focus of the review is on two parameters of macromodeling linguistic variability: structural-level and functional-discursive. The first is associated with “enlarging” the subject of variation studies from phonemes to texts, while the second parameter is related to considering various phenomena of speech activity in terms of variation, such as language consciousness, language personality, and formats of speech activity (goals, discourses, speech genres, etc.). The relevance of this research is determined by the context of the emergence of variation studies as a universal direction in language research. A monitoring of linguistic works on variation shows that linguistics in this aspect is developing along the lines of globalization. The material for this study was collected from publications on Elibrary.ru from 2000 to 2023. The focus was primarily on works that explicitly mentioned concepts related to the ontological manifestations of linguistic variation and the epistemological trend towards their metalinguistic globalization.
Slavic languages. Baltic languages. Albanian languages
The article is devoted to the relationship between N.V. Gogol and M.A. Maksimovich (1804–1873), his fellow countryman from the Poltava region. In his family there were writers and professors, they were proud of it, and Maksimovich himself from childhood dreamed of becoming a professor of botany in Moscow, but became a professor of Russian literature in Kiev and as a philologist and historian lived a fruitful scientific life. With Gogol he was brought together by his love for Little Russian songs. For the famous collection of songs by Maksimovich, Gogol offered several of his recordings and took part in its publication. Both were enthusiastic about the unrealized project to occupy university departments in Kiev together and turn it into a “new Athens,” launching an extensive educational program there. Their relations, invariably warm, were almost in absentia, until the autumn of 1849, when at the end of October Maksimovich arrived in Moscow, where Gogol then lived, and remained there for more than six months. In June they went together to their native lands, and in August 1850 Maksimovich visited Gogol in his village of Vasilyevka. Botany classes during the trip gave Gogol knowledge about Russia, important for the continuation of “Dead Souls.” Maksimovich, in his turn, left a portrait of the writer marked by professional observation and at the same time sympathetic understanding.
Literature (General), Slavic languages. Baltic languages. Albanian languages
This paper is a study on Slavicism in the debate between Slavophilism and Westernism, which was an ideological debate that engulfed Russian intellectual circles in the early and mid-19th century. The development history of Russian written language, starting with славянский (Slavicism) in the 9th century and moving toward славянорусский (Slavyanorossiysky) in the mid-18th century, is a journey of weakening the position of славянский and increasing the status of русский. The superiority of the former over the latter was maintained for several centuries, but cracks in the relationship between the two languages began to appear during the reign of Peter the Great in the late-17th and early-18th centuries. From the mid-18th century, they fused into one national literary language, namely славянорусский. Slavicism, which started out as a category in origin, transitioned into a stylistic category from this period and functioned as a stylistic component within the stylistic system of Russian literary language. This study examines the characteristics of Slavicism from the mid-18th century to the early-to-mid-19th century by classifying it in terms of form and function. After introducing the conflicting views of Slavophilism and Westernism on Slavicism, as well as a compromise view of these two views, the paper expresses the following views: The debate between Slavophilism and Westernism only ended in different interpretations of the linguistic reality of Russia at the time and had no effect on the linguistic reality. Slavicism, which had undergone continuous changes for several centuries, was following its own path of change, regardless of the ideologies and ideals of intellectuals regarding language, especially in the 19th century.
The article advocates for the imperative need to compile an interactive digital ethno-linguistic atlas of the Metohija region in Kosovo (Alb. Rrafshi i Dukagjinit, “Dukagjin Plain”). Over the course of two millennia, this area has been a unique arena for interaction among diverse ethnic and linguistic groups, including paleo-Balkan tribes, Romans, Albanians, Balkan Romance speakers, South Slavs, Rumelian and Anatolian Turks, as well as Roma (Romani, Ashkali, and “Egyptians”), among others. Remarkably, the languages and cultures of this region are still studied independently, often in isolation from one another. The formation of a comprehensive Russian scientific discourse on a range of Metohija ethnolinguistic issues is deemed a crucial task within Balkan studies. The term “ethno-linguistic,” in line with the overarching synthesizing and aggregating approach of Balkan linguistics, is proposed to be employed in both its accepted meanings in Russian academia ― ‘ethnolinguistic’ (e.g., ethnolinguistic groups of people) and ‘investigating language in relation to culture’ (e.g., Moscow Ethnolinguistic School).The article raises the question of the specificity of the linguistic, ethnolinguistic, and cultural-anthropological landscape of Metohija against the backdrop of the broader Balkan context. It queries whether, due to centuries of close contacts between its ethno-linguistic groups, a linguistic and cultural union has evolved on this territory. To address this issue, an areal study is proposed, investigating the linguistic, dialectal, and cultural- anthropological micro-differentiation of all languages and cultures within the region in relation to local ethnic and social processes, focusing on interethnic, social, interfaith, cultural, and linguistic interactions. The proposed atlas program includes ethnolinguistic and sociolinguistic inquiries, cove-ring ethnic self-identification, migrations, linguistic aspects of marital strategies, etc. Subsequently, it encompasses questions reflecting all levels of language structure across the known Metohija territorial varieties and social dialects. Additionally, it addresses questions of ethnolinguistics in the traditional sense within Russian scientific understanding.The atlas aims to provide insights into the reasons, processes, and mechanisms behind the formation of linguistic and cultural unions or the hindrance of such convergent processes in specific micro-areas of the Balkan Peninsula.
Pumping lemmata are the main tool to prove that a certain language does not belong to a class of languages like the recognizable languages or the context-free languages. Essentially two pumping lemmata exist for the recognizable weighted languages: the classical one for the Boolean semiring (i.e., the unweighted case), which can be generalized to zero-sum free semirings, and the one for fields. A joint generalization of these two pumping lemmata is provided that applies to all Artinian semirings, over which all finitely generated semimodules have a finite bound on the length of chains of strictly increasing subsemimodules. Since Artinian rings are exactly those that satisfy the Descending Chain Condition, the Artinian semirings include all fields and naturally also all finite semirings (like the Boolean semiring). The new pumping lemma thus covers most previously known pumping lemmata for recognizable weighted languages.
COOL is an Object-Oriented programming language used to teach compiler design in many undergraduate and graduate courses. Because most students are unfamiliar with the language and code editors and IDEs often lack the support for COOL, writing code and test programs in COOL are a burden to students, causing them to not fully understand many important and advanced features of the language and compiler. In this tool paper, we describe COOLIO,an extension to support COOL in the popular VSCode IDE. COOLIOprovides (i) syntax highlighting supports for the COOL language through lexing and parsing, (ii) semantics-aware autocompletion features that help students write less code and reduce the burden of having to remember unfamiliar COOL grammar and syntax, and (iii) relevant feedback from the underlying COOL interpreter/compiler (e.g., error messages, typing information) to the students through VSCode editor to aid debugging. We believe that COOLIO will help students enjoy writing COOL programs and consequently learn and appreciate more advanced compiler concepts.
IBM has developed a quantum assembly (QASM) language particular to gate model quantum computing since 2017 [CBSG17]. Version 3.0 which adds timing, pulse control, and gate modifiers is currently undergoing finalization in 2023 [CJA+21]. In a similar vein, Pakin of Los Alamos National Laboratory published a quantum macro assembler (QMASM) for D-Wave quantum annealers in 2016 [Pak16]. This assembler specifically targets quantum annealers like D-Wave's. A comparable technology that targets continuous-variable (CV) quantum computing is the Blackbird language developed by Xanadu since 2018 [KIQ+19]. We implement parsers for each of these languages in TypeScript with a singular approach. In the cases of Blackbird and QMASM these are the first parser implementations that are web compatible and so bring these languages to a new audience and to new runtimes. This makes the parsing and execution of QMASM, QASM and Blackbird possible in web and mobile environments that don't have access to heavy compile toolchains, enabling adoption and scientific research.
We investigate the properties of formal languages expressible in terms of formulas over quantifier-free theories of word equations, arithmetic over length constraints, and language membership predicates for the classes of regular, visibly pushdown, and deterministic context-free languages. In total, we consider 20 distinct theories and decidability questions for problems such as emptiness and universality for formal languages over them. First, we discuss their relative expressive power and observe a rough division into two hierarchies based on whether or not word equations are present. Second, we consider the decidability status of several important decision problems, such as emptiness and universality. Note that the emptiness problem is equivalent to the satisfiability problem over the corresponding theory. Third, we consider the problem of whether a language in one theory is expressible in another and show several negative results in which this problem is undecidable. These results are particularly relevant in the context of normal forms in both practical and theoretical aspects of string solving.
In machine learning (ML), researchers and engineers seem to be at odds. System implementers would prefer models to be declarative, with detailed type information and semantic restrictions that allow models to be optimised, rearranged and parallelised. Yet practitioners show an overwhelming preference for dynamic, imperative languages with mutable state, and much engineering effort is spent bridging the resulting semantic divide. Is there a fundamental conflict? This article explores why imperative and functional styles are used, and how future language designs might get the best of both worlds.
The preamble to the Rus’ian-Byzantine treaty, which was concluded around 944, contains dozens of anthroponyms – the names of members of the Kyivian elite, their envoys as well as merchants. Several of them can be identified as Slavonic. The author attempted to answer the question about the identity of these Slavs and their status within the “decision-making collective” of the early Rus’ian state. He has compared the information contained in the treaty with material consisting of other Rus’ian and Byzantine sources. Additionally the author compared the system of governance in the state of the first Rurikids with the model present among the Yotvingians and other medieval Baltic societies, which have also came under the influence of the Scandinavians.
Slavic languages. Baltic languages. Albanian languages
Abstract Languages can be divided into two main types depending on how they express motion ( Talmy, 1991 , 2000 ). Satellite-framed languages (S-languages; e.g., English, German, Polish) express path outside the verb root leaving the verb free to encode manner (e.g., The bottle floated into the cave), while verb-framed languages (V-languages; e.g., Japanese, Spanish, Turkish) lexicalize path in the verb root and manner in an adjunct (e.g., Spanish La botella entro en la cueva flotando ‘The bottle entered the cave floating’). However, recent works suggest that languages also exhibit intratypological variation, i.e., variation within the same typological affiliation as well as intralinguistic variation, i.e., variation within particular languages. This paper aims to further delimit motion encoding patterns by focusing on the interplay between abstract argument structure constructions, verbs, and directional satellites. Based on data from Germanic, Romance, and Slavic languages, we propose that (i) Talmy's (2000) typology can be better accounted for in terms of verb-construction combinability constraints and (ii) intertypological, intratypological, and intralinguistic variability in the expression of motion can be regarded as a byproduct of the availability of particular verb-construction mappings in the world's languages.