Hasil untuk "Law of nations"

Renata Pelissari, Ricardo Suyama, Leonardo Tomazeli Duarte et al.

How can a National Artificial Intelligence Strategy be effectively monitored? To address this question, we propose a methodology consisting of two key components. First, it involves identifying relevant indicators within national AI strategies. Second, it assesses the alignment between these indicators and the strategic actions of a specific government's AI strategy, allowing for a critical evaluation of its monitoring measures. Moreover, identifying these indicators helps assess the overall quality of the strategy's structure. A lack of alignment between strategic actions and the identified indicators may reveal gaps or blind spots in the strategy. This methodology is demonstrated using the Brazilian AI strategy as a case study.

Weijie Shi, Chengyi Ju, Chengzhong Liu et al.

Do Large Language Models (LLMs) hold positions that conflict with your country's values? Occasionally they do! However, existing works primarily focus on ethical reviews, failing to capture the diversity of national values, which encompass broader policy, legal, and moral considerations. Furthermore, current benchmarks that rely on spectrum tests using manually designed questionnaires are not easily scalable. To address these limitations, we introduce NaVAB, a comprehensive benchmark to evaluate the alignment of LLMs with the values of five major nations: China, the United States, the United Kingdom, France, and Germany. NaVAB implements a national value extraction pipeline to efficiently construct value assessment datasets. Specifically, we propose a modeling procedure with instruction tagging to process raw data sources, a screening process to filter value-related topics and a generation process with a Conflict Reduction mechanism to filter non-conflicting values.We conduct extensive experiments on various LLMs across countries, and the results provide insights into assisting in the identification of misaligned scenarios. Moreover, we demonstrate that NaVAB can be combined with alignment techniques to effectively reduce value concerns by aligning LLMs' values with the target country.

V. V. Voinikov

INTRODUCTION. This article presents an analysis of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) Court's advisory opinion of April 7, 2025, clarifying the provisions of the EAEU Treaty regarding the common services market. In considering the case, the Union Court was required to address questions related to the application of freedom of services provisions to air transportation services within the Union. The main issue addressed before the Court was to what extent the cross-border air transportation within the EAEU is governed by international air law and by EAEU law. Given three dissenting opinions, consensus on this issue was not reached. Nevertheless, the Grand Collegium formulated a legal position according to which freedom of services provisions apply to air transportation services to the extent that they do not conflict with common transport policy. Accordingly, member states cannot impose additional restrictions, and the Eurasian Economic Commission has jurisdiction in this area.MATERIALS AND METHODS. The methodological basis of the study was formed by traditional general scientific and specialized methods of understanding legal phenomena: the comparative legal method; the method of scientific analysis; the formal legal method; and the method of synthesizing socio-legal phenomena.RESEARCH RESULTS. As a result of the study, the author concluded that international air transportation within the EAEU is regulated by a complex set of legal norms, including international air law, the national laws of member states, and the EAEU's law regarding the free movement of services and coordinated transport policy.DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. Current international air law, including the 1944 Chicago Convention, does not impose any restrictions on the extension of provisions on free trade in services to commercial air transportation. In fact, two parallel systems can be identified regarding the regulation of international air transportation: the first is based on the Chicago Convention; the other is an economic system based on bilateral agreements or a regional system. EAEU law provides for the creation of a common air transportation market, but it has not yet been formed. At the same time, member states must not introduce new restrictions on trade in transport services that did not exist at the time of the conclusion of the EAEU treaty. EAEU legal norms regarding trade of services and coordinated (harmonized) transport policy and international air law do not compete, but, together with national law, form a complementary legal system in the field of air transportation.

E. N. Melnikova

INTRODUCTION. The use of artificial intelligence technologies (hereinafter referred to as “AI”) is characterized by the mediation of human actions by autonomous processes, which leads, in the case when technical expertise is unable to identify the causer of harm, to a “responsibility gap” is an undesirable legal phenomenon in which the imposition of responsibility for harm caused by the use of AI on a specific person (persons) for the rules of tort liability are impossible.MATERIALS AND METHODS. The research used general scientific and special methods, including the historical method, methods of formal logic, analysis, synthesis, as well as systemic and comparative legal methods.RESEARCH RESULTS. To eliminate the “responsibility gap”, the article proposes a mechanism that allows to fill in the missing elements of a tort committed using AI when the error that led to harm cannot be attributed de lege lata to any participant in the life cycle of an AI system or application. The starting point for the development of this mechanism was the theory of “guidance control” over the use of AI. A legal understanding of the philosophical foundations of the theory of “guidance control” allows us to substantiate the general legal principle of allocating responsibility for harm caused by AI, according to which the legal responsibility is borne by the person obliged to exercise human control over the use of the AI system or application, unless other perpetrators are identified. This principle is gradually being accepted by the international legal doctrine, which is expressed in the designation of the need to control the use of AI in a number of international documents.CONCLUSIONS. Provided that the protocol to the Treaty on the EAEU enshrines the general legal principle of responsibility of the controlling person for harm caused by AI, it can acquire the significance of a regional international legal principle, and thereby become the basis for the formation of regulatory regulation in the EAEU of the distribution of responsibility for harm caused by AI. The proposed toolkit is convenient for legal consolidation through supranational legal regulation.

Mingyu Yu, Jiayang Wang, Sahani A. Iddawela et al.

GaAs(111)B is a semiconductor substrate widely used in research and commercial fields due to its low cost, mature synthesis technology, and excellent properties for manufacturing electronic devices. It is not only used to grow three-dimensional (3D) strongly-bonded materials, but has also been used as a substrate for layered, van der Waals (vdW)-bonded chalcogenide film growth. However, GaAs(111)B wafers cannot be directly used for growing epitaxial vdW chalcogenide films for two reasons: (1) the GaAs surface has a substantial number of dangling bonds that need to be passivated for vdW layers growth; (2) the substrate surface is covered with a thin epi-ready oxide layer which must be removed before film growth. In this paper, we optimize the method for deoxidizing GaAs(111)B substrates under a Se overpressure and successfully create a smooth, deoxidized, and passivated substrate for subsequent growth of vdW chalcogenide materials. We demonstrate the benefits of this method for the growth of vdW chalcogenide thin films using GaSe as a representative of vdW chalcogenides. In addition, we find that severely aged substrates have difficulty maintaining a smooth surface during the deoxidation and passivation process and cause GaSe crystals to nucleate in random shapes and orientations. We describe a method using water droplet testing to determine the age of the substrate. Finally, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) characterization reveals that the natural aging of GaAs(111)B in the air results in an increase in surface oxides, Ga2O3 and As2O3, while exposure to ultraviolet (UV)-ozone not only enhances the contents of these two oxides but also generates a new oxide, As2O5. Our research contributes to expanding the compatibility of GaAs(111)B with diverse growth materials and the production of high-quality heterostructure devices.

Michael B. Law, Isaac M. Lopez, Daniel Santiago

We establish a weighted positive mass theorem which unifies and generalizes results of Baldauf--Ozuch and Chu--Zhu. Our result is in fact equivalent to the usual positive mass theorem, and can be regarded as a positive mass theorem for smooth metric measure spaces. We also study Dirac operators on certain warped product manifolds associated to smooth metric measure spaces. Applications of this include, among others, an alternative proof for a special case of our positive mass theorem, eigenvalue bounds for the Dirac operator on closed spin manifolds, and a new way to understand the weighted Dirac operator using warped products.

Charles J. Law, Alice S. Booth, Karin I. Öberg

Planets form in dusty, gas-rich disks around young stars, while at the same time, the planet formation process alters the physical and chemical structure of the disk itself. Embedded planets will locally heat the disk and sublimate volatile-rich ices, or in extreme cases, result in shocks that sputter heavy atoms such as Si from dust grains. This should cause chemical asymmetries detectable in molecular gas observations. Using high-angular-resolution ALMA archival data of the HD 169142 disk, we identify compact SO J=8$_8$-7$_7$ and SiS J=19-18 emission coincident with the position of a ${\sim}$2 M$_{\rm{Jup}}$ planet seen as a localized, Keplerian NIR feature within a gas-depleted, annular dust gap at ${\approx}$38 au. The SiS emission is located along an azimuthal arc and has a similar morphology as a known $^{12}$CO kinematic excess. This is the first tentative detection of SiS emission in a protoplanetary disk and suggests that the planet is driving sufficiently strong shocks to produce gas-phase SiS. We also report the discovery of compact $^{12}$CO and $^{13}$CO J=3-2 emission coincident with the planet location. Taken together, a planet-driven outflow provides the best explanation for the properties of the observed chemical asymmetries. We also resolve a bright, azimuthally-asymmetric SO ring at ${\approx}$24 au. While most of this SO emission originates from ice sublimation, its asymmetric distribution implies azimuthal temperature variations driven by a misaligned inner disk or planet-disk interactions. Overall, the HD 169142 disk shows several distinct chemical signatures related to giant planet formation and presents a powerful template for future searches of planet-related chemical asymmetries in protoplanetary disks.

Roman Szul

Two identities coexisted and competed among Catalans: some considered themselves a regional variant of the Spanish nation, while others claimed to represent a separate nation. While four decades ago the first orientation prevailed, today the second attitude is more common. National identity has largely replaced ethno-regional identity. Catalans distinguish between the concepts of "nation" and "state," according to which there can be a nation without a state as well as a nationality residing in more than one state, while mostly in Western Europe these concepts are not distinguished: states are nations and nations without a state do not exist. The European Union was built on the basis of this very formal-political definition of a nation. Nations without a state in the EU have been "crammed" into the category of ethnic groups, which the EU does not deal with, or into the category of regions completely dependent on the states on whose territory they are located. Having changed the identity of the Catalans, it is difficult to "cram" them into the category of an ethnic group, so they have become a problem for the European Union. The purpose of this article is to explain the situation that has led to a contradiction between the rule of law and the principle of democracy in the EU. The rule of law was the basis for the EU institutions' ignoring the Catalan declaration of independence in 2017, but on the other hand, the concern for democracy resulted in the refusal to surrender to Spain the Catalan leaders who were on EU territory and were being prosecuted by the Spanish authorities.

Olena Pavlova, Iryna Kuchynska, Volodymyr Gorbalinskiy et al.

The war that Russia started against Ukraine in 2022 shook the whole world. However, it is worth noting that the conflict has been going on since 2014, when Russia annexed Crimea and supported terrorist groups in eastern Ukraine. The study of the Russian-Ukrainian conflict is relevant for several reasons. Firstly, it is an acute political problem that affects the state of affairs in the region and relations between the two states. It not only threatens the stability in Europe, but also threatens to destroy the entire modern system of international law. Secondly, the Russian-Ukrainian conflict has deep historical roots that need to be understood in order to find ways to resolve it. Studying the history and culture of these two nations, as well as their relationship, can help us understand the causes of the conflict and how to hold Russia accountable. Thirdly, the Russian-Ukrainian conflict is an example of the relationship between two states with different political, economic, and cultural systems. The study of the conflict can help to better understand these systems and their interactions. The study of the Russian-Ukrainian conflict is a relevant and important task for politicians, scholars, and the public, as it can help find ways to achieve Ukraine’s victory, punish Russia, establish stability in the region, and prevent future conflicts. The purpose of the article is to analyze the historical retrospective of the development of Russian-Ukrainian relations and Russia’s oppression of the Ukrainian people. In addition, the author examines the current preconditions of the conflict. The article also reveals the reaction of the international community to the current conflict and all the illegal acts committed by Russia. The article also aims to suggest ways to overcome the civilizational conflict between the countries.

WAAS BoT

The World Academy of Art and Science condemns the Russian military invasion of Ukraine. It is an illegal act of aggression. It is causing the death of innocent civilians and placing the security of the entire world at risk. The threat or use of force to resolve disputes is prohibited under Article 2 of the UN Charter. Russia was not under any threat that offered no recourse other than force. In fact, President Putin, in ordering military attacks against Ukraine, has committed a Crime Against Peace in violation of the UN Charter by planning, preparing, initiating, and waging a war of aggression. Russia’s acts of war will burden Ukraine with an enormous cost in human suffering, stimulate a massive crackdown on the civil liberties of Russians who respect international law and peace, expand the conflict, and even place the entire world at risk of elevation to a nuclear exchange. President Putin has threatened to use nuclear weapons against adversaries in this conflict. Such a threat places the entirety of civilization in jeopardy and is unacceptable. A war of aggression is not only illegal and immoral, it is also impractical. Every nation today needs to cooperate in addressing many pressing issues such as climate change, eliminating poverty, protecting the health of all species and the oceans, curtailing and eliminating the pandemic, and fulfilling the Sustainable Development Goals. We regret that better use was not made of diplomacy, mediation, and common security mechanisms earlier in the conflict to address and resolve historical grievances. We now call the international community to use all non-military means possible, including those outlined in Articles 33–41 of the UN Charter for the peaceful settlement of those disputes. These provisions of the UN Charter provide a route to mitigate, contain, and reverse the dangerous present situation and provide diplomatic tools to obtain peace. We respect the courage and rights of the people of Ukraine to exercise self-defense, express our solidarity with them, and encourage support for them from all peace-loving nations. Further, we decry the curtailing of civil liberties of Russians who do not agree with the policies of their leaders and honor their courage. We encourage the utilization of further diplomatic mechanisms available in the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), in which both the US and Russia are participants. We further urge the UN Security Council and the General Assembly to remain seized of the issue of ending the violence and conflict in Ukraine, and to obtain an immediate ceasefire. Furthermore, the deployment of a UN peacekeeping mission should be considered with the consent of all parties involved. We call on world leaders to demand an immediate cessation of hostilities in Ukraine, as requested by the international public opinion, and we urge all parties and individuals in a position of influence to renew efforts for a diplomatic solution, starting with immediate negotiations under UN aegis. Adopted by the Board of Trustees on March 2, 2022

Caglar Tuncay

More than one billion data sampled with different frequencies from several financial instruments were investigated with the aim of testing whether they involve power law. As a result, a known power law with the power exponent around -4 was detected in the empirical distributions of the relative returns. Moreover, a number of new power law behaviors with various power exponents were explored in the same data. Further on, a model based on finite sums over numerous Maxwell-Boltzmann type distribution functions with random (pseudorandom) multipliers in the exponent were proposed to deal with the empirical distributions involving power laws. The results indicate that the proposed model may be universal.

Erik Blasch, James Sung, Tao Nguyen et al.

Recent advances in artificial intelligence (AI) have lead to an explosion of multimedia applications (e.g., computer vision (CV) and natural language processing (NLP)) for different domains such as commercial, industrial, and intelligence. In particular, the use of AI applications in a national security environment is often problematic because the opaque nature of the systems leads to an inability for a human to understand how the results came about. A reliance on 'black boxes' to generate predictions and inform decisions is potentially disastrous. This paper explores how the application of standards during each stage of the development of an AI system deployed and used in a national security environment would help enable trust. Specifically, we focus on the standards outlined in Intelligence Community Directive 203 (Analytic Standards) to subject machine outputs to the same rigorous standards as analysis performed by humans.

Ricardo Marcondes Martins

Apresentam-se neste estudo as principais modificações que a teoria do ato administrativo sofreu desde a promulgação da Constituição de 1988. Se, em 1988, já se encontrava na doutrina quem sustentasse a teoria dos três planos e, pois, a possibilidade de modificação do ato, era praticamente pacífico o apego ao legalismo. Os avanços decorrentes do neoconstitucionalismo importaram numa radical reformulação da teoria. Tornaram-se excepcionalmente possíveis atos administrativos praeter legem e contra legem. A ponderação passou a ser fundamental, tanto para a edição do ato, como para identificação dos vícios e para sua correção. Além de uma profunda reformulação das teorias da extinção e da modificação, os avanços científicos importaram no sepultamento dos atos da Administração e dos atos políticos.

Sergio Caprara, Angelo Vulpiani

About 35 years ago Wheeler introduced the motto `law without law' to highlight the possibility that (at least a part of) Physics may be understood only following {\em regularity principles} and few relevant facts, rather than relying on a treatment in terms of fundamental theories. Such a proposal can be seen as part of a more general attempt (including the maximum entropy approach) summarized by the slogan `it from bit', which privileges the information as the basic ingredient. Apparently it seems that it is possible to obtain, without the use of physical laws, some important results in an easy way, for instance, the probability distribution of the canonical ensemble. In this paper we will present a general discussion on those ideas of Wheeler's that originated the motto `law without law'. In particular we will show how the claimed simplicity is only apparent and it is rather easy to produce wrong results. We will show that it is possible to obtain some of the results treated by Wheeler in the realm of the statistical mechanics, using precise assumptions and nontrivial results of probability theory, mainly concerning ergodicity and limit theorems.

Mario A. Téllez G., Jessica Colín M.

A partir del estudio de expedientes penales de la época, se analiza si las autoridades juzgaron de forma diferenciada a las mujeres, en cuanto a la dulcificación de las penas, durante el periodo de consolidación de la codificación en el Estado de México, y al mismo tiempo valoran si con la promulgación del primer código penal de la entidad se registró algún cambio en la administración de justicia.

Mohd Anuar Mat Isa, Ramlan Mahmod, Nur Izura Udzir et al.

This paper presents a trust computation for international relations and its calculus, which related to Bayesian inference, Dempster Shafer theory and subjective logic. We proposed a method that allows a trust computation which is previously subjective and incomputable. An example of case study for the trust computation is the United States of America Great Britain relations. The method supports decision makers in a government such as foreign ministry, defense ministry, presidential or prime minister office. The Department of Defense (DoD) may use our method to determine a nation that can be known as a friendly, neutral or hostile nation.

Steven K. Specht, Michael Piccolo

Two federal statutes have unwittingly resulted in depriving nonresident United States citizens of a constitutional right to bear arms. This article considers the background of the statutes, the rights and obligations of US Citizens abroad, and past jurisprudence on the Second Amendment. Through analysis of two types of scrutiny, one can consider how far to take the right to bear arms and determine how the right to bear arms should be treated for those who consciously give up permanent residency and live abroad.

Alexandros Beskos, Ajay Jasra, Kody Law et al.

In this article we consider the approximation of expectations w.r.t. probability distributions associated to the solution of partial differential equations (PDEs); this scenario appears routinely in Bayesian inverse problems. In practice, one often has to solve the associated PDE numerically, using, for instance finite element methods and leading to a discretisation bias, with the step-size level $h_L$. In addition, the expectation cannot be computed analytically and one often resorts to Monte Carlo methods. In the context of this problem, it is known that the introduction of the multilevel Monte Carlo (MLMC) method can reduce the amount of computational effort to estimate expectations, for a given level of error. This is achieved via a telescoping identity associated to a Monte Carlo approximation of a sequence of probability distributions with discretisation levels $\infty>h_0>h_1\cdots>h_L$. In many practical problems of interest, one cannot achieve an i.i.d. sampling of the associated sequence of probability distributions. A sequential Monte Carlo (SMC) version of the MLMC method is introduced to deal with this problem. It is shown that under appropriate assumptions, the attractive property of a reduction of the amount of computational effort to estimate expectations, for a given level of error, can be maintained within the SMC context.

Adam D. Law, Ludger Harnau, Matthias Troendle et al.

Within mean-field theory we determine the universal scaling function for the effective force acting on a single colloid located near the interface between two coexisting liquid phases of a binary liquid mixture close to its critical consolute point. This is the first study of critical Casimir forces emerging from the confinement of a fluctuating medium by at least one soft interface, instead by rigid walls only as studied previously. For this specific system, our semi-analytical calculation illustrates that knowledge of the colloid-induced, deformed shape of the interface allows one to accurately describe the effective interaction potential between the colloid and the interface. Moreover, our analysis demonstrates that the critical Casimir force involving a deformable interface is accurately described by a universal scaling function, the shape of which differs from that one for rigid walls.

Nicholas M. Law, Octavi Fors, Philip Wulfken et al.

Current time-domain wide-field sky surveys generally operate with few-degree-sized fields and take many individual images to cover large sky areas each night. We present the design and project status of the Evryscope ("wide-seer"), which takes a different approach: using an array of 7cm telescopes to form a single wide-field-of-view pointed at every part of the accessible sky simultaneously and continuously. The Evryscope is a gigapixel-scale imager with a 9060 sq. deg. field of view and has an etendue three times larger than the Pan-STARRS sky survey. The system will search for transiting exoplanets around bright stars, M-dwarfs and white dwarfs, as well as detecting microlensing events, nearby supernovae, and gamma-ray burst afterglows. We present the current project status, including an update on the Evryscope prototype telescopes we have been operating for the last three years in the Canadian High Arctic.