Abstract Servants have long been identified as the most migratory occupational group in early modern society. This chapter charts the migration and mobility of women in service in south and south-west England, using evidence of female servants’ places of residence and birth recorded in court depositions. Migration patterns are established and at a more granular level I chart the extent of local movement between households. The chapter shows variation in the extent and distances that early modern servants travelled and demonstrates the importance of considering not only how mobility affected experiences of service but how service contributed to a society in which geographically disparate places and communities were connected. The chapter finds servant hiring was irregular: hiring occurred throughout the year and contract length was highly variable, with many staying longer than just one year, and many others serving for periods outside of the assumed annual cycle. This evidence points to the prevalence of informal processes of labour exchange (door-to-door enquiry and word of mouth) and the relative absence of formal mechanisms like hiring fairs. In identifying the informality of servant hiring, I ask whether the institution of service can really be considered an institution at all.
Entre 1990 y 2020 fueron deforestadas 178 millones de hectáreas en el mundo. Sin embargo, poco se ha estudiado los vínculos entre el acceso o la propiedad desigual a la tierra y la deforestación. Este artículo contribuye a dicho estudio usando un modelo econométrico basado en información socioeconómica y de imágenes satelitales de la cobertura arbórea en Colombia tras el fin del conflicto entre el Gobierno colombiano y las FARC-EP. Los resultados constatan que el crecimiento poblacional y la expansión de la ganadería tiene un impacto en la tasa de deforestación, aunque la intensidad del efecto depende del nivel de desigualdad de la propiedad rural.
A partir de los fundamentos que caracterizan a las ciencias plenamente constituidas, el artículo cuestiona el estatuto científico de la economía y discute por qué coexisten en su interior diversos paradigmas, cuyos fundamentos teóricos y metodológicos se contraponen. La primera parte revisa los ciclos de las corrientes teóricas predominantes y analiza el rigor científico de los principales paradigmas; en particular, examina las inconsistencias y las ambigüedades del paradigma neoclásico, que, a pesar de asumirse actualmente como dominante, está lejos de satisfacer las exigencias básicas del quehacer científico. En la segunda parte, se debate la confluencia de los distintos cuerpos teóricos, y se contrasta el componente clasista, político e ideológico de cada uno. A fin de cubrir las exigencias que impone el avance de la economía como disciplina científica, debe asumirse que las teorías económicas no son políticamente neutrales; que, más allá de las prédicas de pseudoneutralidad que suelen enmascarar afanes apologéticos, es preciso reconocer la estrecha relación que existe entre los intereses clasistas, la objetividad y el trabajo científico.
Economic history and conditions, Economics as a science
1- Abstract
The arrival of Britain in India under the cover of the East India Company at the beginning of the 17th century led to the country’s gaining access to the legendary financial resources in the subcontinent. However, with the British presence in India, the Zoroastrian community of this country, known as the Parsis, also underwent a significant economic transformation. Evidence of the increase in the wealth of the Parsis after the establishment of the British East India Company in the subcontinent is that in the 19th and 20th centuries, with the capital possessed, they set up numerous and large factories in India. Were there any special relations in the economic and professional field between the Parsis of India and the company? This is the question that the present study seeks to answer. In this study, using related historical sources, including works about the Parsis of India as well as compilations about the beginning and implementation of the British East India Company, the reasons for the positive perception of the company leaders of the Parsis are examined using a descriptive-analytical approach. Then, by reviewing the professional life of the Parsis, in two important ports of Surat and Bombay, which were the main points of contact with the company’s employees, examples of the Parsis services to the British East India Company and the privileges donated to the Persis leaders by the British are recounted and analyzed. The results show that the Parsis cooperation with the British government representatives in India was not limited to economic fields and that the British also had the assistance of the Zoroastrian community in the political arena.
2- Introduction
The followers of Zoroastrianism have been known in India from past times as “Farsi” or “Parsi”. In fact, since the annexation of the western parts of India to the Achaemenid Empire, Iranians travelled to these areas. Also, Iranian Zoroastrians, especially their clerics, travelled to India before Islam to propagate this religion for business. But the issue of their migration to India after Islam is mainly based on a poetic story called "Qeṣṣe-ye Sanjān" composed in 1008 AH (1600 AD). The narrator of the story events has been a trusted Zoroastrian priest to Bahman Keyqubad, the story’s composer. Based on this source, after the Arab invasion of Khurasan during the conquest of Iran, the Zoroastrians of a village called Sanjan in north-eastern Iran took refuge in the nearby mountains and spent a hundred years there. Then, they travelled to the island of Hormuz and lived there for fifteen years. "Dib" on the southern shores of the Indus was their next destination, where they remained for nineteen years. Then, they moved to Gujarat and settled in an area that was reminiscent of the former land of Sanjan, where they also spent five hundred years. Therefore, this group of immigrants left India in the middle of the second century AH. The question is, how did the narrator get these exact time intervals?
The editor of Qesse in the introduction of the book indicates the existence of sufficient references to prove the truth of this story. One of the documents he presents is the narration of Baladhuri in "Futuh al-Buldan" in which the people of Kerman fled from the Arab army. But this narration is not applicable to the story of Sanjan. The narration of Baladhuri indicates the escape of a number of people of Kerman in the first half of the first century AH from the Arab army and their departure to Hormuz and the conflict with the Arabs on this island. Baladhuri's words in this regard end with this report: many people of Kerman fled by sea. The existence of many ambiguities in the story caused its rejection by some contemporary Zoroastrian scholars.
However, the story says the adventure of the Parsis refugees in which they asked the Hindu ruler of the region to stay in Gujarat, and he agreed to live there under certain conditions. Among his conditions was: In the language, domination, and clothing of women, the Hindu customs should be considered, and also the means of war should be avoided. Accordingly, the Parsis accorded themselves perfectly to the culture and customs of the environment; this point was probably one of the reasons for the British approach toward them. Karaka writes in this regard: “It is a characteristic of the Persis that they have behaved appropriately to other peoples, even though their beliefs and customs are different, and they have adjusted themselves to the conditions, although the conditions were not according to their desire”. Jonathan Duncan, the British ruler of Mumbai at the beginning of the 19th century, criticized Muslims in a conversation with Abdul Latif Shushtari, comparing them to the Parsis, who easily adapted themselves to the custom and culture of the superior people: “What is the reason that wherever the monarchy of the Muslim exists or a sect of Muslims resides, their work is on the harshness ... unlike other religions which are smooth and gentle?"
On the events of 986 AH / 1587 AD, Badayuni, the historian of the court of Jalaluddin Akbar has reported the presence of Zoroastrians from the city of Navsari in the Gujarat region in the court of this ruler and writes that this powerful ruler ordered that the fire always be kept lit in a certain place. The report shows that in the late 16th century, the city of Navsari near Surat was the main settlement of Zoroastrians in India and since the agricultural conditions of the region met their job and economic needs, they had not migrated to Surat. Although the Parsis lived in this port before the arrival of the Europeans, the increase in their number was closely related to the arrival of European companies in this city.
The endeavour of European countries to penetrate east by sea led the Portuguese Vasco da Gama to become the first European sailor to set foot on Indian soil. Nehru reminds us that this first step was taken after the end of the Muslim rule over Andalusia in 1492 AD. Perhaps from the view of the new Iberian rulers, this move was revenge to conquer the East and spread Christianity in the face of the spread of Islam in Spain. Wasn't that the Portuguese paid special attention to the spread of Christianity in the East, and their violence of the Muslim merchants whom they called the Moors (Spanish Muslims) was unexampled? It is said that the intensity of the Portuguese violence was due to the superiority of the Muslims in trade, while part of it must be attributed to their dissatisfaction with the long Muslim rule in southwestern Europe.
From the Europeans’ point of view, the port of Surat, in the south of Gujarat and on the bank of the navigable Tapi or Tapti River, about 30 km far from the Arabian Sea, was suitable for their ships to travel to India. The knowledge of European capitalists of the geographical location of Surat, which was connected with the Far East countries on the one hand and with the Iranian and Arab ports, on the other hand, encouraged them to build several factories in this port from the second decade of the 17th century. Also, the relative proximity of Surat to Deccan and Gujarat, the centers of cotton cultivation and production in India made the Europeans eager to build factories there. Then, the Portuguese, the Dutch, the French, and the British came to this port and each established a trading company in their own name. The location of Surat made this port the most commercially productive one in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries and was distinguished among Indian ports. This supremacy continued until the rise of Mumbai in the commercial arena, and then Surat was ignored.
Although the British East India Company arrival in Surat after Portugal managed to repel the enemy with military force, the French financial bankruptcy in Surat automatically led to their removal from the port. The company, which ostensibly bore the name of the company and was in fact the British government with shareholders (mainly military personnel), after a while, took over the country's political destiny in addition to monopolizing India's trade.
In this study, the reasons and methods of the East India Company's use of the Parsi society of India, as one of the tools to increase their influence in this land, as well as the type of cooperation of the Parsis with the British and its results for them are discussed. So far, no specific research has been done on this topic; however, numerous works related to the history of the Parsis, as well as writings related to the emergence and decline of the East India Company, contain scattered materials on the subject of this study. The manuscript of “Waqaye-i Hind” by Abdul Latif Shushtari at the beginning of the 19th century, which deals with the events in India, especially the island of Mumbai, has useful and relevant information in this regard. Shushtari, who was on behalf of the company, overseeing the affairs of Iranian businessmen in Mumbai, met daily with the island's Parsi leaders and recorded valuable notes of their relations with the company's leaders. The History of the Parsis, a work from the second half of the 19th century, also contains useful information on the subject of this article, due to the proximity of the author's era to the period of intimate relations between the Persians and the British. An article with the title Pyarsis and the British also contains notes on the relations between the Parsis and the East India Company which Hinnells published in 1978 in the journal of Kama Institute.
3- Materials and Methods
have been the main sources of the author for writing this descriptive-analytical article.
4- Discussion of Results and Conclusions
The British East India Company made its way to India later than Portugal, the Netherlands, and France in the early 17th century, but soon overtook European rivals and pursued its capitalist goals singly. In the meantime, the British needed the help of the natives of India to achieve their goals. People with abilities in business, sea voyages, knowledge of local products and facilities, knowledge of local leaders and celebrities, skills in intermediary in transactions and linguistics were among the characteristics of Parsis. On the other hand, the Zoroastrian community of India was eager to cooperate with the East India Company in order to be more successful in business, obtain various goods, and receive support during business trips. Although Parsis did not gain a high position in the company and even export goods directly to Europe, and the company's leaders viewed them as instrumental and a means of profit, in order to continue their cooperation, they were constantly provided with business opportunities and more income. The British acquisition of advanced technology in the textile industry, their progress in land and sea transportation, and entry into Asian markets, relying on the military in the 19th century, also had a positive impact on Parsis business. Their cooperation with the British for more than three centuries provided them with more wealth than they had imagined. The wealth they accumulated in the 18th century and the first half of the 19th century through various means, especially trade, was invested in the industry from the second half of this century. In the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century, they held half of the managerial and regulatory positions of Mumbai factories. They owned India's first steel plant. Some of them violated some of the moral limitations of Zoroastrianism and followed the British way of life to earn more money. At this time, Britain was their homeland. But the Parsis’ dependence on British capitalists also caused them some harm. In the late 19th century, the center of India's foreign trade was moved from the west of India, the center of Parsis’ gathering and life, to the east by the heads of companies; thus Parsis’ role in trade diminished. Opium exports from India to China also declined. New industries entered the world of Indian industry in 1900, and Parsis paid less attention to these industries due to the continued focus on cotton and fabric production. Together, these factors halted the economic growth of Parsis in the second half of the 20th century compared to the previous century. The Parsis’ close and intimate relations with the British also caused them cultural damages such as the loss of religious identity which has been considered and protested by some followers of this religion.
History (General) and history of Europe, History of Asia
Flávio Vilela Vieira, Valdecy Caetano de Sousa Junior
O objetivo do artigo consiste em investigar a relação entre a variação da taxa de
câmbio e a inflação no Brasil, no período de janeiro de 2003 a dezembro de 2019.
Além de estimar o repasse da taxa de câmbio, foi investigada a existência de assimetrias. Para atingir tal objetivo, foram estimados quatro modelos lineares, autorregressivos de defasagens distribuídas (auto-regressive distributed lag – ARDL), e
quatro modelos não lineares (N-ARDL). Nos modelos lineares, os resultados indicaram um repasse médio de 0,08% e 0,19% para o Índice Nacional de Preços ao
Consumidor Amplo (IPCA) e o Índice Geral de Preços/Disponibilidade Interna
(IGP-DI), respectivamente. Nos modelos não lineares, o repasse médio foi 0,06%
para o IPCA e 0,18% para o IGP-DI. Os resultados indicaram a presença de assimetrias entre apreciações e depreciações e que os modelos lineares tendem a subestimar o repasse cambial. Os testes confirmaram a causalidade de Granger
(1969) entre a variação do câmbio e a inflação.
Economic history and conditions, Economics as a science
Az Európai Unióban megvalósuló gazdasági integráció szorossága megfelel annak a szintnek, amit Rodrik hiperglobalizációnak nevez. Az elmélet szerint a politika szintjén egyszerre nem valósítható meg a demokratikus politikai döntéshozatal, a teljes világgazdasági
integráció, illetve a nemzetállam. A trilemma a globalizáció útjában álló intézményi különbségeken alapszik. Az esszében ezt a trilemmát dilemmává, és végső soron a neofunkcionalizmus és intergovernmentalizmus dilemmájává egyszerűsítjük az Unió elmúlt években
megfigyelhető válságjelenségei kapcsán. A GMU válság, illetve a menekültválság kapcsán
végül arra jutunk: amennyiben a válságkezelésben az intergovernmentalista megközelítés
kerekedik felül, az még jó esetben is egy többsebességű Európa kialakulásához vezethet.
Economic theory. Demography, Economic history and conditions
The purpose of this study is to identify the role of automatization in increasing wage inequality, by comparing the United States to Portugal. Using the PSID and Quadros de Pessoal (Personnel Records), we find that labor income dynamics are strongly determined by the variance of the individual fixed component. This effect is drastically reduced by adding information on workers’ occupational tasks, confirming that a decreasing price of capital and the consequent replacement of routine manual workers have deepened wage inequality. During the current crisis, we find that the ability to keep working is strongly related with the kind of occupation. As such, we foster the impact of a permanent demand shock using an overlapping generations model with incomplete markets and heterogeneous agents to quantitatively predict the impact of Covid‑ 19 and lockdown measures on wage premium and earnings inequality. We find that wage premia and earnings dispersion increase, suggesting that earnings inequality will increase at the expense of manual workers.
Economic history and conditions, Economics as a science
En este trabajo se realiza una estimación del impacto de la política monetaria sobre la actividad productiva en las regiones y los sectores de la economía colombiana empleando un modelo de rezagos distribuidos en el que se combinan datos de producción regional y sectorial y una medida de choques de política monetaria estimada con datos del agregado de la economía. Los resultados obtenidos muestran que hay importantes diferencias sectoriales en el impacto de la política monetaria sobre la producción, las cuales resultan ser determinantes en la transmisión regional de la política monetaria a través del canal de tasa de interés.
Famous early modern engineering feats in architecture, such as Brunelleschi’s dome in Florence, have traditionally been presented in historiography as the accomplishments of individual ‘authorial’ figures. Yet, for many other innovative building technologies of the early modern period, the authorship remains unknown. Often such inventions were the result of incremental advances for which many people were responsible. The socio-economic circumstances that allowed for technological developments remain an understudied field in architectural history. This paper presents the building site as an important space of knowledge production. Difficulties that arose during construction had a stimulating effect on the exchange of ideas among various professional groups, including architects, master craftsmen, and engineers. A special case is found in the development of specialised building techniques in the 17th-century Dutch Republic. By the end of the Golden Age, the ‘Hollanders’, considered ‘the most expert in Europe’ in the construction of large structures in marshy conditions, were valued for their ‘incomparable inventions’ in hydraulic engineering and their skill in laying foundations. The work involved in this process — driving piles and excavating pits in marshy conditions — was by definition an interdisciplinary endeavour, and required the expertise of architects, masons, carpenters, and others. Building in these conditions not only posed serious technical difficulties, but also involved high costs, challenging master craftsmen to invent new cost-saving methods and techniques. In this paper, this innovative and interdisciplinary climate will be explored through the analysis of 17th-century patents, or inventor privileges, in the Early Dutch Republic (1580−1650). Patents are an understudied source in architectural history, yet architects and artisans from the building trades were highly active in obtaining such privileges. In addition, the patenting process was an important incentive to invest time and capital in technological innovation among various social groups within and outside the building trades, thus stimulating exchanges between people with theoretical and practical backgrounds.
Jorge Arturo Hurtado López, Engracia Martínez García
El desarrollo económico e industrial del estado de Guanajuato y, en particular, de la ciudad de León, se expresó en una concentración de población y medios de producción en el territorio urbano, lo que tuvo como consecuencia la fuerte expansión de éste. En el periodo de 1960 a 1990 la vivienda de los agrupamientos sociales medios y obreros en esta ciudad se caracterizó por los elevados índices de rezago en cuanto a calidad y cantidad. Tal situación no sólo refleja las carencias habituales en materia habitacional de esos agrupamientos, sino en la existencia de una “penuria” especialmente agravada que, no obstante su crecimiento en número y su mejora a lo largo del tiempo, mantuvo la desigualdad en la satisfacción de las necesidades de ese bien, que permaneció e incluso se agravó a lo largo del lapso estudiado.
This research paper aims to achieving a comparative analysis of the two versions of IAS 2 „Stocks” (variants of 1993 and 2005). The research is part of a larger study regarding the accounting processes carried out for the acknowledgement and assessment of the company stock, and the purpose of the study is to develop a new framework methodology for the acknowledgement and assessment of stocks.
The research is based on a series of work hypotheses: (I1) IAS 2 variant of 1993 needs to be reviewed according to the regulations and normatives in force; (I2) the necessity to review IAS variant of 1993 derives from the critics raised by the regulating authorities for stock and shares, by the professional accountants and by other interested parties, with regard to the reduction or elimination of alternatives, redundancies and conflicts from standards, and the solving of convergence issues; (I3) the 2005 variant of IAS 2 is the result of a limited reviewing of the 1993 variant of IAS 2, and needs to be further modified.
Economic history and conditions, Economics as a science
La intencionalidad de este artículo es, desde el punto de vista de la economía ortodoxa, presentar los fundamentos de la regulación contable, estableciendo recorridos conceptuales que nos permitan comprender los supuestos que la fundamentan. Las categorías de mercado, agente, institución, norma, regla, entre otras, enmarcadas en las posturas neoclásica y neoinstitucional son el telón de fondo sobre el cual se analizará la contabilidad. Se revisan diferentes teorías que sustentan la regulación económica para comprender el proceso regulativo en sí. El escrito es de carácter introductorio, intentando brindar argumentos teóricos ortodoxos a la discusión acerca del proceso de convergencia contable.
Economic history and conditions, Economics as a science
El presente estudio se enfoca en determinar la relación entre los volúmenes de operación y la asimetría de los rendimientos de los principales mercados accionarios latinoamericanos: Argentina, Brasil, Chile, Colombia, México y Perú. Se utiliza el modelo propuesto por Hutson et al. (2008), el cual incluye especificaciones de los primeros tres momentos de los volúmenes de operación comercializados y de los rendimientos de los mercados. La principal conclusión del estudio es el hallazgo de evidencia estadísticamente significativa de la influencia de los volúmenes de transacción y la asimetría de los rendimientos en los mercados accionarios de México, Brasil, Chile, Colombia y Argentina y en menor cuantía en Perú.
Economic history and conditions, Economics as a science
El presente trabajo describe las principales características del mecanismo de regulación por precios tope, incluyendo su ubicación dentro de las posibilidades de acción regulatoria, las críticas que se han planteado al mismo, así como los mecanismos complementarios utilizados y los riesgos involucrados en su desarrollo.
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This article describes the main characteristics of the price cap regime of price regulation, including its location among other regulatory possibilities, critics received, complementary mechanisms and risks involved in its development.
Economic growth, development, planning, Economic history and conditions