Hasil untuk "Slavic languages. Baltic languages. Albanian languages"

Vagheesh M. Narasimhan, N. Patterson, Priya Moorjani et al.

Ancient human movements through Asia Ancient DNA has allowed us to begin tracing the history of human movements across the globe. Narasimhan et al. identify a complex pattern of human migrations and admixture events in South and Central Asia by performing genetic analysis of more than 500 people who lived over the past 8000 years (see the Perspective by Schaefer and Shapiro). They establish key phases in the population prehistory of Eurasia, including the spread of farming peoples from the Near East, with movements both westward and eastward. The people known as the Yamnaya in the Bronze Age also moved both westward and eastward from a focal area located north of the Black Sea. The overall patterns of genetic clines reflect similar and parallel patterns in South Asia and Europe. Science, this issue p. eaat7487; see also p. 981 Genome-wide analysis of ancient DNA from more than 500 individuals from Central and South Asia illuminates the spread of Indo-European languages. RATIONALE To elucidate the extent to which the major cultural transformations of farming, pastoralism, and shifts in the distribution of languages in Eurasia were accompanied by movement of people, we report genome-wide ancient DNA data from 523 individuals spanning the last 8000 years, mostly from Central Asia and northernmost South Asia. RESULTS The movement of people following the advent of farming resulted in genetic gradients across Eurasia that can be modeled as mixtures of seven deeply divergent populations. A key gradient formed in southwestern Asia beginning in the Neolithic and continuing into the Bronze Age, with more Anatolian farmer–related ancestry in the west and more Iranian farmer–related ancestry in the east. This cline extended to the desert oases of Central Asia and was the primary source of ancestry in peoples of the Bronze Age Bactria Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC). This supports the idea that the archaeologically documented dispersal of domesticates was accompanied by the spread of people from multiple centers of domestication. The main population of the BMAC carried no ancestry from Steppe pastoralists and did not contribute substantially to later South Asians. However, Steppe pastoralist ancestry appeared in outlier individuals at BMAC sites by the turn of the second millennium BCE around the same time as it appeared on the southern Steppe. Using data from ancient individuals from the Swat Valley of northernmost South Asia, we show that Steppe ancestry then integrated further south in the first half of the second millennium BCE, contributing up to 30% of the ancestry of modern groups in South Asia. The Steppe ancestry in South Asia has the same profile as that in Bronze Age Eastern Europe, tracking a movement of people that affected both regions and that likely spread the unique features shared between Indo-Iranian and Balto-Slavic languages. The primary ancestral population of modern South Asians is a mixture of people related to early Holocene populations of Iran and South Asia that we detect in outlier individuals from two sites in cultural contact with the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), making it plausible that it was characteristic of the IVC. After the IVC’s decline, this population mixed with northwestern groups with Steppe ancestry to form the “Ancestral North Indians” (ANI) and also mixed with southeastern groups to form the “Ancestral South Indians” (ASI), whose direct descendants today live in tribal groups in southern India. Mixtures of these two post-IVC groups—the ANI and ASI—drive the main gradient of genetic variation in South Asia today. CONCLUSION Earlier work recorded massive population movement from the Eurasian Steppe into Europe early in the third millennium BCE, likely spreading Indo-European languages. We reveal a parallel series of events leading to the spread of Steppe ancestry to South Asia, thereby documenting movements of people that were likely conduits for the spread of Indo-European languages. The Bronze Age spread of Yamnaya Steppe pastoralist ancestry into two subcontinents—Europe and South Asia. Pie charts reflect the proportion of Yamnaya ancestry, and dates reflect the earliest available ancient DNA with Yamnaya ancestry in each region. Ancient DNA has not yet been found for the ANI and ASI, so for these the range is inferred statistically. By sequencing 523 ancient humans, we show that the primary source of ancestry in modern South Asians is a prehistoric genetic gradient between people related to early hunter-gatherers of Iran and Southeast Asia. After the Indus Valley Civilization’s decline, its people mixed with individuals in the southeast to form one of the two main ancestral populations of South Asia, whose direct descendants live in southern India. Simultaneously, they mixed with descendants of Steppe pastoralists who, starting around 4000 years ago, spread via Central Asia to form the other main ancestral population. The Steppe ancestry in South Asia has the same profile as that in Bronze Age Eastern Europe, tracking a movement of people that affected both regions and that likely spread the distinctive features shared between Indo-Iranian and Balto-Slavic languages.

Aditya Thimmaiah, Jiyang Zhang, Jayanth Srinivasa et al.

As large language models (LLMs) excel at code reasoning, a natural question arises: can an LLM execute programs (i.e., act as an interpreter) purely based on a programming language's formal semantics? If so, it will enable rapid prototyping of new programming languages and language features. We study this question using the imperative language IMP (a subset of C), formalized via small-step operational semantics (SOS) and rewriting-based operational semantics (K-semantics). We introduce three evaluation sets-Human-Written, LLM-Translated, and Fuzzer- Generated-whose difficulty is controlled by code-complexity metrics spanning the size, control-flow, and data-flow axes. Given a program and its semantics formalized with SOS/K-semantics, models are evaluated on three tasks ranging from coarse to fine: (1) final-state prediction, (2) semantic rule prediction, and (3) execution trace prediction. To distinguish pretraining memorization from semantic competence, we define two nonstandard semantics obtained through systematic mutations of the standard rules. Across strong code/reasoning LLMs, performance drops under nonstandard semantics despite high performance under the standard one. We further find that (i) there are patterns to different model failures, (ii) most reasoning models perform exceptionally well on coarse grained tasks involving reasoning about highly complex programs often containing nested loop depths beyond five, and surprisingly, (iii) providing formal semantics helps on simple programs but often hurts on more complex ones. Overall, the results show a promise that LLMs could serve as programming language interpreters, but points to the lack of their robust semantics understanding. We release the benchmark and the supporting code at https://github.com/EngineeringSoftware/PLSemanticsBench.

Noah Friesen, Oscar H. Ibarra, Jozef Jirásek et al.

The store language of an automaton is the set of store configurations (state and store contents, but not the input) that can appear as an intermediate step in an accepting computation. A one-way nondeterministic finite-visit Turing machine (fvNTM) is a Turing machine with a one-way read-only input tape, and a single worktape, where there is some number $k$ such that in every accepting computation, each worktape cell is visited at most $k$ times. We show that the store language of every fvNTM is a regular language. Furthermore, we show that the store language of every fvNTM augmented by reversal-bounded counters can be accepted by a machine with only reversal-bounded counters and no worktape. Several applications are given to problems in the areas of verification and fault tolerance, and to the study of right quotients. We also continue the investigation of the store languages of one-way and two-way machine models where we present some conditions under which their store languages are recursive or non-recursive.

A. A. Burchanova

This article examines the status of the Moldovan linguistic system in relation to the Romanian language. A comprehensive analysis of the Moldovan idiom is conducted within the frameworks of historical, socio-political, and linguistic perspectives. The study provides an elaborate description of the history of the formation and development of the Moldovan idiom, systematically categorizing the viewpoints of Soviet, Moldovan, and Romanian linguists regarding its status. Special attention is given to the issue of the devaluation of the linguistic term ‘Moldovan language’ in the Republic of Moldova, while highlighting its preservation in statistical documents of the Russian Federation. The empirical foundation of this research consists of materials from sociolinguistic interviews conducted in 2024 in various cities of the Republic of Crimea among representatives of the Moldovan community. The novelty of this work lies in its pioneering comprehensive investigation into the status of the Moldovan idiom, utilizing data on the evaluation and identification of the native language obtained through surveys of Crimean Moldovans. Conclusions are drawn that the Moldovan idiom indeed possesses a number of specific characteristics at the phonetic, lexico-semantic, and grammatical levels, and that representatives of the Moldovan community in the Republic of Crimea continue to be custodians of the distinctive traditions of their native language.

Andrea Meyer-Fraatz

Обычно в связи с экранизацией литературных произведений говорят об адаптациях. Роман или другое произведение адаптируется к другому виду искусства – кино. Как правило, литературный текст требует сокращения сюжета или персонажей, кроме того, применяются специфические для кино приемы – музыка, визуальные эффекты, монтаж и т. д. Однако в «Защите Лужина» голландского режиссера Марлен Горрис встречается больше изменений, чем можно объяснить только переносом литературного материала в другой вид искусства. В данной работе представлен теоретический подход к описанию различных типов экранизаций, который позволяет определить фильм Горрис как трансформацию и объяснить суть изменений, внесенных в действие, систему персонажей и хронотоп по сравнению с романом. В результате фильм оказывается «потусторонностью» романа.

Maurizia Calusio

Book Review

Jérôme Guyot

This paper investigates the state complexities of subword-closed and superword-closed languages, comparing them to regular languages. We focus on the square root operator and the substitution operator. We establish an exponential lower bound for superword-closed languages for the k-th root. For subword-closed languages we analyze in detail a specific instance of the square root problem for which a quadratic complexity is proven. For the substitution operator, we show an exponential lower bound for the general substitution. We then find some conditions for which we prove a quadratic upper bound.

Aneta Dimitrova

According to a colophon in manuscript RM 3/6 from the Rila Monastery, a complete Slavonic translation of John Chrysostom’s Homilies on the Statues was made on Mount Athos by the Serbian monk Antonije and copied by Vladislav the Grammarian in 1473. In fact, this is the earliest extant copy of a thorough revision of the first translation that was made in Preslav in the 10th century, and the text was partially translated anew after a different Greek source. All three preserved copies of this translation contain a number of explanatory glosses. Some of them refer to rare and archaic words, whereas others provide synonyms and better readings. In the article, close attention is paid to the 21 interlinear and marginal glosses as they occur in the Rila manuscript. The glosses are divided into four overlapping groups: I. Translations and explanations of Greek words; II. Biblical references; III. Synonyms; and IV. Varia. Eight of the annotations are discussed in detail in comparison to the Preslav translation and the Greek sources, with additional data from other medieval Slavonic texts. Since the practice of annotating was typical of the scribe Vladislav, some arguments were considered whether he was the author of the glosses. In most cases, the annotator was also a competent and observant editor, who usually corrected or updated the language according to his contemporary terminology.

Michel Niqueux

Aleksandra S. Pakhomova

The literary reputation and creativity of M.A. Kuzmin has been determined to be influential on the unofficial Leningrad culture of the second half of the 20th century, such as works by L.L. Rakov, V.N. Petrov, A.N. Egunov, and others. The analysis of the texts shows that Kuzmin has a shared creative tradition with close friends and young people. Based on the analysis of their texts and the practice of their transmission, the article concludes that these writers formed a kind of emotional community, a bonded memory of Kuzmin, and knowledge of the crucial texts of the elder poet. Many works of Egunov, Petrov, and Rakov of this kind are “coded” by one text or another or by Kuzmin’s method. In turn, Kuzmin’s young friends in the second half of the 20th century themselves take on the role of “masters,” allowing practices, texts, and pre-revolutionary literary culture that support the following representatives, philologists, poets, and writers of the 1950s–1960s. The figure and texts of Kuzmin in these years form a different, unofficial literature, being perceived by authors who are looking for an alternative to Soviet culture. The structure of Kuzmin’s cult was shaped by historical and cultural factors following his demise. For many years, the topics that have been advancing on the periphery of Kuzmin’s work allow us to raise the question of the real influence of Kuzmin’s personality and creativity on the literary culture and literary process of the 20th century.

M. Dronov

As you know, discussions about one’s own identity and literary language do not stop in the Carpatho–Rusyn society – first of all, between Rusynophiles and Ukrainophiles. At the same time, until the beginning of the twentieth century, there were practically no supporters of the Ukrainian national idea among the Carpatho-Rusyns. Russophiles played a significant role. The influential politician Adolf Dobryansky (1817–1901) and the Greek Catholic priest, the talented writer Yuliy Stavrovsky (1850–1899) belong to the pantheon of Carpatho-Rusyn “awakeners” (enlighteners) of 20th century, who considered all the Rusyns of the Habsburg monarchy to be part of a single Russian (East Slavic, not Great Russian or “Rus’-Ukrainian”) people. Published letters stored in the Scientific Research Department of Manuscripts of the Russian State Library (Moscow), date back to 1879, when the issue of appointing Stavrovsky dean of the church in the village Chertezh – estate of Dobryansky was being decided.

Ömer Eğecioğlu, Benedek Nagy

We consider languages defined by signed grammars which are similar to context-free grammars except productions with signs associated to them are allowed. As a consequence, the words generated also have signs. We use the structure of the formal series of yields of all derivation trees over such a grammar as a method of specifying a formal language and study properties of the resulting family of languages.

Pablo Barcelo, Alexander Kozachinskiy, Anthony Widjaja Lin et al.

We contribute to the study of formal languages that can be recognized by transformer encoders. We focus on two self-attention mechanisms: (1) UHAT (Unique Hard Attention Transformers) and (2) AHAT (Average Hard Attention Transformers). UHAT encoders are known to recognize only languages inside the circuit complexity class ${\sf AC}^0$, i.e., accepted by a family of poly-sized and depth-bounded boolean circuits with unbounded fan-ins. On the other hand, AHAT encoders can recognize languages outside ${\sf AC}^0$), but their expressive power still lies within the bigger circuit complexity class ${\sf TC}^0$, i.e., ${\sf AC}^0$-circuits extended by majority gates. We first show a negative result that there is an ${\sf AC}^0$-language that cannot be recognized by an UHAT encoder. On the positive side, we show that UHAT encoders can recognize a rich fragment of ${\sf AC}^0$-languages, namely, all languages definable in first-order logic with arbitrary unary numerical predicates. This logic, includes, for example, all regular languages from ${\sf AC}^0$. We then show that AHAT encoders can recognize all languages of our logic even when we enrich it with counting terms. We apply these results to derive new results on the expressive power of UHAT and AHAT up to permutation of letters (a.k.a. Parikh images).

Giuseppina Turano

In this paper, I explore the properties and the uses of the past participles in the Arbëresh variety of S. Nicola dell’Alto, an Albanian dialect still spoken in Southern Italy, which has been in contact with Italo-Romance varieties for more than five centuries. The data are discussed in comparison to standard Albanian and the contact language, Italian. In Albanian grammar, there is only one type of participle: the past participle. It has both verbal and adjectival properties. As a verbal form, the participle is used in compound and in periphrastic tenses, in combination with both the auxiliaries KAM ‘have’ and JAM ‘be’. It can also be used in combination with other particles to create non-finite verbal forms such as gerund or infinitive or to build up temporal expressions. Finally, it can also be used after some modal impersonal verbs. Verbal participles never show agreement. Albanian participles can also be adjectival. All the adjectives derived by a participial verb take a linking article and always agree with the noun they modify in gender, number, Case and definiteness. The formal distinction of the verbal participles from adjectival participles seems to correlate with the aspectual properties of the construction: a verbal participle appears in eventive structures, whereas an adjectival participle occurs in stative structures. But, as we shall see, this is not always the case. Arbëresh participles have maintained the same morphological and syntactical properties of Albanian. They can be used both in stative and in eventive contexts, but in Arbëresh eventive passives, which are built up as in Italian rather than as in Albanian, the adjectival participles are always inflected. Agreement is obligatory in all the contexts where it is in Italian. This is a clear contact-induced change. The data presented in this paper show that Arbëresh, on the one hand, preserves features of Albanian grammar, whereas, on the other hand, it has undergone changes under the influence of the surrounding Italo-Romance varieties.

Milan Hrdlička

The quality of teaching material has a significant role in the process of acquiring a foreign language. It can serve to facilitate, strengthen, and accelerate the process. The pace of acquisition of Czech as a foreign language is influenced by the degree of typological and genealogical differences between Czech and the foreigner's mother tongue. The advantage of the learners' Slavic mother tongue is most evident at the beginning of the study (A0 - A2); subsequently, it gradually decreases. The basic problems in the presentation of Czech grammar include formalism, i.e., a strong focus on grammatical forms, but not on their meanings and functions in communication. We also consider the unbalanced attention to morphology (which predominates) and syntax (which lags behind) to be unsatisfactory. We have objections on the hybrid mixing of linguistic means within standard Czech (i.e. among the literary, neutral, and colloquial layers). The lack of an explicitly formulated concept on the basis of which the Czech grammar is presented (e.g. on the basis of frequency, communicative importance, formal difficulty of the learning material, etc.) is also undesirable. As far as the key chapters of the Czech vocabulary are concerned, the prevailing separate presentation of verb classes, more frequent discussion of the simple past tense before the future tense, the gradual presentation of cases (and not entire paradigms), as well as the dominance of deduction, prescription and semasiology are notable in the textbooks. We consider improving the instruction about the speech dimension and increasing focus on onomasiology as crucial.

S. Peltola, K. Majander, N. Makarov et al.

The Volga-Oka interfluve in northwestern Russia has an intriguing history of population influx and language shift during the Common Era. Today, most inhabitants of the region speak Russian, but until medieval times, northwestern Russia was inhabited by Uralic-speaking peoples.1,2,3 A gradual shift to Slavic languages started in the second half of the first millennium with the expansion of Slavic tribes, which led to the foundation of the Kievan Rus' state in the late 9th century CE. The medieval Rus' was multicultural and multilingual-historical records suggest that its northern regions comprised Slavic and Uralic peoples ruled by Scandinavian settlers.4,5,6 In the 10th-11th centuries, the introduction of Christianity and Cyrillic literature raised the prestige status of Slavic, driving a language shift from Uralic to Slavic.3 This eventually led to the disappearance of the Uralic languages from northwestern Russia. Here, we study a 1,500-year time transect of 30 ancient genomes and stable isotope values from the Suzdal region in the Volga-Oka interfluve. We describe a previously unsampled local Iron Age population and a gradual genetic turnover in the following centuries. Our time transect captures the population shift associated with the spread of Slavic languages and illustrates the ethnically mixed state of medieval Suzdal principality, eventually leading to the formation of the admixed but fully Slavic-speaking population that inhabits the area today. We also observe genetic outliers that highlight the importance of the Suzdal region in medieval times as a hub of long-reaching contacts via trade and warfare.

Aidan Evans, Seun Omonije, Robert Soulé et al.

Gate-based quantum programming languages are ubiquitous but measurement-based languages currently exist only on paper. This work introduces MCBeth, a quantum programming language which allows programmers to directly represent, program, and simulate measurement-based and cluster state computation by building upon the measurement calculus. While MCBeth programs are meant to be executed directly on hardware, to take advantage of current machines we also provide a compiler to gate-based instructions. We argue that there are clear advantages to measurement-based quantum computation compared to gate-based when it comes to implementing common quantum algorithms and distributed quantum computation.

Kalpana Mahalingam, Anuran Maity

In this work, we explore the concept of Watson-Crick conjugates, also known as $θ$-conjugates (where $θ$ is an antimorphic involution), of words and languages. This concept extends the classical idea of conjugates by incorporating the Watson-Crick complementarity of DNA sequences. Our investigation initially focuses on the properties of $θ$-conjugates of words. We then define $θ$-conjugates of a language and study closure properties of certain families of languages under the $θ$-conjugate operation. Furthermore, we analyze the iterated $θ$-conjugate of both words and languages. Finally, we discuss the idea of $θ$-conjugate-free languages and examine some decidability problems related to it.

Роман Тименчик

Elaborating literary scholar Boris Tomashevsky’s actionable metaphor “schools” of readers, this historical study picks up seven ‘graduates’ from the depth of poet Nikolai Gumilev’s followers.

Віталій [Vitaliĭ] Максимчук [Maksymchuk]

Ukrainian Football Phraseology: Semantic Aspect The analysis of football phraseologisms as specific sayings enables, as far as possible, the construction of an objective picture of Ukrainian sports phraseology. Football phraseology has the following features: (a) it emerges in the domain of football or involves the acquisition of new semantics in this domain; (b) the integrity of meaning is closely related to football situations; (c) it is reproducible in football discourse for the purpose of secondary nomina­tion of some actions, processes, phenomena; (d) it is relatively constant in terms of composition and structure (with possible variation); (e) it is expressive. Football phraseologisms fixed in the modern Internet discourse include the following semantics: (a) team actions; (b) group (combinative) actions; (c) individual actions of players; (d) referees’ actions; (e) the result of a match; (f) substitution of players; (g) the end of a career; (h) the team’s aim at a tour­nament, etc. The Ukrainian football phraseology is characterised by inconsistency of its components, significant variability and various semantic content, which often leads to the transformation of its elements and the development of polysemy. A large number of synonymous phraseologisms belong to a category with the meaning ‘to score a goal’; some units contain military vocabulary. The correct interpretation of football phraseology requires background knowl­edge, which indicates its narrow professional orientation and which means that it is incomprehensible for the average speaker. The development of football discourse and the evolution of its vocabulary require the compiling of dictionaries of the active type and the creation of text corpora that will open up new perspectives for linguistic and football studies.   Frazeologia piłkarska w języku ukraińskim. Aspekt semantyczny  Analiza frazeologizmów związanych z piłką nożną jako konkretnych powiedzeń umożliwia zbudowanie, na ile to możliwe, obiektywnego obrazu ukraińskiej frazeologii sportowej. Frazeologię piłkarską charakteryzuje szereg cech: a) pojawia się w domenie piłki nożnej lub wiąże się z nabywaniem w niej nowych znaczeń; b) integralność znaczenia jest ściśle związana z sytuacjami piłkarskimi; c) jest odtwarzalna w dyskursie piłkarskim dla celów wtórnej nomi­nacji pewnych działań, procesów, zjawisk; d) jest względnie stała pod względem składu i struktury (z możliwością zmienności); e) jest ekspresywna. Utrwalone we współczesnym dyskursie internetowym frazeologizmy pił­karskie obejmują następującą semantykę: a) działania zespołowe; b) działania grupowe (wspólne); c) indywidualne działania graczy; d) działania sędziów; e) wynik meczu; f) zmiana zawodników; g) zakończenie kariery; h) cel drużyny w turnieju itp. Ukraińska frazeologia piłkarska charakteryzuje się niespójnością jej elementów, znaczną zmiennością i różnorodną treścią semantyczną, co często prowadzi do transformacji i rozwoju polisemii. Duża liczba synonimicznych frazeologizmów należy do kategorii o znaczeniu ‘zdobyć gola’; niektóre jed­nostki zawierają słownictwo wojskowe. Prawidłowa interpretacja frazeologii piłkarskiej wymaga podstawowej wiedzy z tego zakresu, co wskazuje na jej wąską orientację zawodową i sprawia, że jest niezrozumiała dla przeciętnego użytkownika języka. Rozwój dyskursu piłkarskiego i ewolucja jego słownictwa wymagają opraco­wania słowników typu aktywnego oraz stworzenia korpusów tekstowych, które otworzą nowe perspektywy w językoznawstwie i badaniach nad piłką nożną.