Hasil untuk "Law of nations"

Katiele Daiana da Silva Rehbein, Felipe Dalenogare Alves

O estudo analisa a população de Canoas/RS afetada pela enchente de 2024, com foco na garantia do direito à moradia, tendo como questão central o seguinte: quais fatores determinam a vulnerabilidade da população nos bairros acometidos pela enchente de 2024 em Canoas/RS e quais políticas habitacionais foram estabelecidas para atender suas necessidades e garantir o direito à moradia? Assim, a pesquisa foi dividida em três etapas: a primeira explora as mudanças climáticas nos aspectos históricos e normativos; a segunda analisa o evento de 2024 e a população impactada em Canoas/RS; e, finalmente, mapeia-se as políticas habitacionais utilizadas. A teoria de base foi a sistêmico-complexa, com abordagem hipotético-dedutiva e quantitativa, conduzida pelo procedimento descritivo e exploratório, e técnicas bibliográfica e análise de dados. Conclui-se que a vulnerabilidade decorre de fatores como renda, gênero e raça, e as políticas habitacionais emergenciais não abrangem completamente esses grupos

С. С. Lazari

INTRODUCTION. This article explores the concept of “cyber sovereignty”, understood as the set of legal claims and mechanisms through which states seek to control and protect their interests in the digital domain. Amid the rapid development of information and communication technologies, the transnational nature of cyberspace, and the lack of unified international norms, debates on the applicability of classical state sovereignty to the digital realm are intensifying. The paper examines various approaches taken by different countries (Russia, China, the United States, EU member states, etc.) in regulating cyberspace, highlighting the growing importance of cybersecurity in international law, and analyzing the role of international organizations (including the UN) and key documents such as the Tallinn Manual 2.0.MATERIALS AND METHODS. The study is based on a qualitative analysis of academic literature, international legal instruments (UN Charter, International Court of Justice rulings, doctrinal documents), national cybersecurity strategies (Russia, the USA, China, among others), and a comparative examination of state practices and positions regarding cyber sovereignty. General and specific scientific methods – analysis and synthesis, systematic and comparative-legal approaches – were employed to identify legal gaps and contradictions in the regulation of the digital environment.RESULTS. The analysis shows that states increasingly aim to extend the concept of classical sovereignty to cyberspace by developing national legislation and creating independent cyber jurisdictions. This trend is reflected in the strategies and doctrines of several countries (China, Russia), which seek to control their segment of the internet. At the same time, a rift remains between states that advocate for an open and free internet (the USA, EU states) and those that prioritize strengthening national control over the digital sphere. In practice, it is difficult for states to reach consensus on the permissible scope of intervention and the application of the principles of non-intervention and sovereignty in cyber operations.DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. The analysis reveals legal uncertainty in defining what kinds of cyber operations violate sovereignty, as well as in the categorization of cyber espionage and low intensity cyberattacks. The UN and its specialized expert groups (GGE, OEWG) are working on harmonizing approaches; however, no single universal mechanism has yet been established. The most acute controversies concern recognizing sovereignty in the digital sphere as a distinct norm of international law and establishing clear criteria for legitimate cyber operations. Overcoming legal gaps and reducing the risk of conflict require the development of universal principles that account for the unique characteristics of cyberspace, as well as the deepening of international cooperation, including the exchange of information and the creation of rapid response mechanisms to cyber threats.

Pilar Suazo-Díaz, Cristian Aedo-Sanchez, Gonzalo Cuéllar-Muñoz et al.

Hearing loss is one of the most prevalent sensory conditions worldwide, affecting over 1.5 billion people and is one of the main causes of disability. For individuals with severe to profound hearing loss, cochlear implants (CIs) are one of the most effective rehabilitation options as they can significantly improve speech comprehension, language development, quality of life and social inclusion. Despite their clinical value, however, access to CIs remains highly unequal between and within countries, with implantation rates disproportionately favoring wealthier nations and people with a higher socioeconomic status. Grounded in a human rights approach, this article develops a conceptual and policy-based reflection supported by a targeted review of scientific literature and international legal standards. From this standpoint, access to CIs must be recognized as an enforceable fundamental right. This recognition implies clear international obligations for states to translate their human rights commitments into tangible, inclusive national policies. Furthermore, this perspective emphasizes the ethical responsibility to ensure the real accessibility, affordability and adaptability of cochlear implants, overcoming barriers related to socioeconomic disparities, geography, race and systemic inequalities. This perspective article highlights the urgent need for comprehensive public policies based on international human rights law to ensure equitable access to cochlear implants, advocating a rights-based approach as a necessary strategy to achieve social justice, dignity and full social participation for people with hearing disabilities.

Michael B. Law

We construct and classify all polynomial growth solutions to certain drift-harmonic equations on complete manifolds with paraboloidal asymptotics. These encompass the natural drift-harmonic equations on certain steady gradient Ricci solitons. Specifically, we show that all drift-harmonic functions with polynomial growth asymptotically separate variables, and compute the dimensions of spaces of drift-harmonic functions with a given polynomial growth rate. The proof uses an inductive argument that alternates between constructing and asymptotically controlling drift-harmonic functions.

Xi Long, Paul P. Plucinsky, Terrance J. Gaetz et al.

We present results from the Chandra X-ray Observatory Large Project (878 ks in 28 observations) of the Large Magellanic Cloud supernova remnant N132D. We measure the expansion of the forward shock in the bright southern rim to be $0.\!^{\prime\prime}10 \pm 0.\!^{\prime\prime}02$ over the $\sim14.5$ yr baseline, which corresponds to a velocity of $1620\pm400~\mathrm{km\,s^{-1}}$ after accounting for several instrumental effects. We measure an expansion of $0.\!^{\prime\prime}23 \pm 0.\!^{\prime\prime}02$ and a shock velocity of $3840\pm260~\mathrm{km\,s^{-1}}$ for two features in an apparent blowout region in the northeast. The emission-measure-weighted average temperature inferred from X-ray spectral fits to regions in the southern rim is $0.95\pm0.17$ keV, consistent with the electron temperature implied by the shock velocity after accounting for Coulomb equilibration and adiabatic expansion. In contrast, the emission-measure-weighted average temperature for the northeast region is $0.77\pm0.04$ keV, which is significantly lower than the value inferred from the shock velocity. We fit 1-D evolutionary models for the shock in the southern rim and northeast region, using the measured radius and propagation velocity into a constant density and power-law profile circumstellar medium. We find good agreement with the age of $\sim2500$ years derived from optical expansion measurements for explosion energies of $1.5-3.0 \times 10^{51}\,\mathrm{erg}$, ejecta masses of $2-6 \,\mathrm{M_{\odot}}$ and ambient medium densities of $\sim0.33-0.66$ $\mathrm{amu~cm}^{-3}$ in the south and $\sim0.01-0.02$ $\mathrm{amu~cm}^{-3}$ in the northeast assuming a constant density medium. These results are consistent with previous studies that suggested the progenitor of N132D was an energetic supernova that exploded into a pre-existing cavity.

Łukasz Dębowski

We inspect the deductive connection between the neural scaling law and Zipf's law -- two statements discussed in machine learning and quantitative linguistics. The neural scaling law describes how the cross entropy rate of a foundation model -- such as a large language model -- changes with respect to the amount of training tokens, parameters, and compute. By contrast, Zipf's law posits that the distribution of tokens exhibits a power law tail. Whereas similar claims have been made in more specific settings, we show that the neural scaling law is a consequence of Zipf's law under certain broad assumptions that we reveal systematically. The derivation steps are as follows: We derive Heaps' law on the vocabulary growth from Zipf's law, Hilberg's hypothesis on the entropy scaling from Heaps' law, and the neural scaling from Hilberg's hypothesis. We illustrate these inference steps by a toy example of the Santa Fe process that satisfies all the four statistical laws.

Alejandro Ortega

Recent progress in AI capabilities has heightened concerns that AI systems could pose a threat to national security, for example, by making it easier for malicious actors to perform cyberattacks on critical national infrastructure, or through loss of control of autonomous AI systems. In parallel, federal legislators in the US have proposed nascent 'AI incident regimes' to identify and counter similar threats. In this paper, we consolidate these two trends and present a timely proposal for a legally mandated post-deployment AI incident regime that aims to counter potential national security threats from AI systems. We start the paper by introducing the concept of 'security-critical' to describe sectors that pose extreme risks to national security, before arguing that 'security-critical' describes civilian nuclear power, aviation, life science dual-use research of concern, and frontier AI development. We then present in detail our AI incident regime proposal, justifying each component of the proposal by demonstrating its similarity to US domestic incident regimes in other 'security-critical' sectors. Finally, we sketch a hypothetical scenario where our proposed AI incident regime deals with an AI cyber incident. Our proposed AI incident regime is split into three phases. The first phase revolves around a novel operationalization of what counts as an 'AI incident' and we suggest that AI providers must create a 'national security case' before deploying a frontier AI system. The second and third phases spell out that AI providers should notify a government agency about incidents, and that the government agency should be involved in amending AI providers' security and safety procedures, in order to counter future threats to national security.

Mingyu Yu, Maria Hilse, Qihua Zhang et al.

Nanolayered post-transition metal monochalcogenides (PTMMCs) stand out as promising advanced two-dimensional (2D) materials. Beyond inheriting the general advantages associated with traditional 2D materials, they exhibit unique properties, including a wide bandgap range covering the ultraviolet to the mid-infrared spectral ranges, thickness-dependent bandgap behaviors, good nonlinear optical performance, high thermoelectric coefficients, and ferroelectricity. Consequently, these materials hold significant potential in diverse applications such as photodetectors, field effect transistors, thermoelectrics, ferroelectrics, photovoltaics, and electrochemical devices, especially in the manufacturing of nanoscale devices. However, there is still a lack of systematic understanding of the PTMMC family. This study provides a broad overview of the crystal structures, bandgap structures, synthesis methods, physical properties, and state-of-the-art applications of PTMMC materials with a motif of X-M-M-X (M=Ga, In, Ge, Sn; X=S, Se, Te). An outlook for the development trends is emphasized at the end, underscoring the critical importance of this work to the future exploration of nanolayered PTMMCs.

S M Rakib Hasan, Aakar Dhakal, Ms. Ayesha Siddiqua et al.

Music plays a huge part in shaping peoples' psychology and behavioral patterns. This paper investigates the connection between national anthems and different global indices with computational music analysis and statistical correlation analysis. We analyze national anthem musical data to determine whether certain musical characteristics are associated with peace, happiness, suicide rate, crime rate, etc. To achieve this, we collect national anthems from 169 countries and use computational music analysis techniques to extract pitch, tempo, beat, and other pertinent audio features. We then compare these musical characteristics with data on different global indices to ascertain whether a significant correlation exists. Our findings indicate that there may be a correlation between the musical characteristics of national anthems and the indices we investigated. The implications of our findings for music psychology and policymakers interested in promoting social well-being are discussed. This paper emphasizes the potential of musical data analysis in social research and offers a novel perspective on the relationship between music and social indices. The source code and data are made open-access for reproducibility and future research endeavors. It can be accessed at http://bit.ly/na_code.

Robert Law, Andreas Born, Philipp Voigt et al.

Large plume-like features within the Greenland Ice Sheet disrupt radiostratigraphy and complicate the use of isochrones in reconstructions of past ice dynamics. Here we use numerical modeling to test the hypothesis that convection is a viable mechanism for the formation of the large (>1/3 ice thickness) englacial plume-like features observed in north Greenland. Greater horizontal shear and snow accumulation impede formation of convection plumes, while stable and softer ice encourages them. These results potentially explain the dearth of basal plumes in the younger and higher-accumulation southern ice sheet. Leveraging this mechanism to place bounds on ice rheology suggests that -- for north Greenland -- ice viscosity may be ~9-15 times lower than commonly assumed. Softer-than-assumed ice there implies significantly reduced basal sliding compared to standard models. Implementing a softer basal ice rheology in numerical models may help reduce uncertainty in projections of future ice-sheet mass balance.

Shrey Aryan, Michael B. Law

We establish a concavity principle for solutions to elliptic and parabolic equations on locally symmetric spaces with nonnegative sectional curvature, extending the results of Langford and Scheuer. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first general concavity principle established on spaces with non-constant sectional curvature.

Mohammed Seid, Simon Shibru, Serekebirhan Takele et al.

Land use/land cover (LULC) changes influence the ecological function, consequence on ecosystem services, which are tightly linked to human wellbeing. However, quantification of the LULC changes and identifying the underlying factors remain patchy particularly in developing nations, despite this information is crucial to propose a feasible restoration action. Therefore, this study investigates the land use/land cover changes and its drivers in central Rift Valley, Ethiopia. GIS and Remote sensors i.e. Landsat 5 (TM), and Landsat 8 (OLI/TIRs) imagery sensors acquired from USGS, and field observation were used. Using the supervised classification method and the support of ArcGIS 10.5 and ERDAS IMAGINE 2014, all images were classified into various land cover types. Focus group discussions, key informant interviews, and structured questionnaire surveys were used to investigate the drivers of LULC change. NDVI was used to detect the vegetation cover change. Woodland, grassland, and barren lands were the major LULC types identified in this study. After 28 years, the woodland cover increased from 20.6% to 40.2% whereas the barren land decreased from 43.4% to 22.6%. Grassland showed very slight increment, i.e. from 35.9% to 36.9%. This implies that area enclosure plays a significant role in the restoration of degraded lands. The highest NDVI values (0.6) were determined in the year 2022 at the end of the classification. Focus group discussants and key informants confirmed that human-induced factors were the major drivers of LULC changes in the study area. Our findings indicated that human interventions are the key determinants of land use/land cover dynamics, and as a result, enforcement of the law and public education campaigns to change human behavior in support of the area enclosure approach are essential to restoring degraded land for the benefit and wellbeing of humans and nature while also advancing the achievement of the global goals.

David Isaac Hernández-Saca, Catherine Kramarczuk Voulgarides, Susan Larson Etscheidt

We conducted a critical systematic literature review on global inclusive education and law. The critical review questions were: (1) how have scholars theorized, conceptualized, and studied global inclusive education? (2) How do scholars define global inclusive education? (3) And what do scholars cite as prominent international inclusive education law? We ask such questions given the ongoing global crises that situate historically marginalized groups in even more precarious positions—including students with dis/Abilities. Given this framing, we employed a critical systematic literature review that is cognizant of our positionalities, writing from the Global North, so that we can identify lines of inquiry related to global inclusive education that can disrupt global cultural hegemony. Global inclusive education was defined broadly from access to employment through a human right, systemic change, academic, social and emotional frameworks for students with dis/Abilities’ inclusion of all “regardless” of markers of difference. International inclusive education law was approached by affirming the aspirational visions of numerous United Nations’ conventions and policies that focused on social justice for Black, Indigenous and Youth of Color with dis/Abilities in education and global society, without necessarily accounting for the interactions between how macro (legal), meso (local contexts) and micro (student voices) are or are not considered in the global inclusive space.

Ni Nengah Adiyaryani, I Putu Rasmadi Arsha Putra

Migrant worker smuggling is a transnational organized crime that harms countries of origin, transit, and destination countries. The smuggling of migrant workers in Southeast Asia, from Southeast Asia and heading to Southeast Asia is largely due to economic factors that cause the Immigration of workers to more economically advanced countries. Weak regulations and restrictions on border control and law enforcement also exacerbate this. The scope of this research regards international legal provisions related to migrant worker smuggling as an organized transnational crime and the legal obligations of each country, which becomes the object of migrant worker smuggling against smuggling based on an international legal perspective. This type of research uses a case approach and statutory normative legal research. Primary, secondary, and tertiary legal materials were used as legal material, then compiled for analysis to answer legal problems. The results of the research, which are findings related to the legal provisions of migrant worker smuggling as a transnational organized crime, are the United Nations conventions ratified by United Nations members, one of which is the United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime (UNCATOC). Migrant workers are carrying out cooperation capacity building along the smuggling route to sharpen data to obtain a more accurate picture of the situation at home, in the region, and globally.

Dmitry I Mikhailov

As artificial intelligence and machine learning continue to advance, we must understand their strategic importance in national security. This paper focuses on unique AI applications in the military, emphasizes strategic imperatives for success, and aims to rekindle excitement about AI's role in national security. We will examine the United States progress in AI and ML from a military standpoint, discuss the importance of securing these technologies from adversaries, and explore the challenges and risks associated with their integration. Finally, we will highlight the strategic significance of AI to national security and a set of strategic imperatives for military leaders and policymakers

M. Harjoto, Andreas G. F. Hoepner, Qian Li

Abstract This study examines the impact of reputational risk, measured by corporate social irresponsibility (CSI) ratings, on shareholder abnormal returns. Based on 7,368 non-financial companies from 42 countries during 2007-2017, we find that long-short portfolios (buying no reputation risk and selling high reputation risk portfolios) earn significantly positive abnormal returns. The cross-national results indicate that the long-short portfolio returns are more pronounced (i) in the emerging market segment than in the developed market segment, (ii) in civil law jurisdictions than in their common law peers, (iii) within nations with higher confidence in corporations and, (iv) within nations with higher institutional trust.

D. Ivanov, M. Levina

The present article is a review of the prospective adoption of a legally binding instrument to regulate, in international human rights law, the activities of transnational corporations (TNCs) and other business enterprises presently being developed under U.N. auspices, aiming for legal control of TNCs’ business functioning. The necessity for international legal control of their business’ functioning with respect to human rights cannot be underestimated as their influence has grown since striving for dominance in world commodity markets and in leading sectors of the global economy. However, quite a number of scholars question the fact that TNCs are not presently recognized as legal personalities rendering the immediate application of international law principles to their business activities all but practically impossible. At the same time, the majority of so called “soft law” principles developed in the U.N. framework in the past fifty years are nothing more than recommendations to TNCs, thus, emphasizing the urgency of developing a legally binding instrument which primarily governs transnational corporations with respect to human rights. Nevertheless, the prospective adoption of a future treaty, currently being developed by the Open-ended Intergovernmental Working Group on Transnational Corporations and other Business Enterprises with Respect to Human Rights, does not look highly promising due to a number of fundamental flaws and inconsistencies analyzed below.

Pajtić Bojan L.

The paper focuses on formal and practical problems in the field of environmental protection, which occur as a consequence of omissions of the legislative and executive authorities in Serbia. The text analyzes the positive legislation and compliance of domestic legal regulations with international declarations and conventions ratified by our country (from the Stockholm Declaration and the Council of Europe Convention on Civil Liability for Damage Caused by Dangerous Activities to the Environment to the Rio Declaration), as well as with European Directives (EU Directive on Industrial Emissions) and Regulations (Regulation No. 525/2013 on monitoring and reporting of greenhouse gas emissions and reporting on other information relevant to climate change). The candidacy for equal membership in the European family of nations obliges the Serbian Parliament and the Government to make additional efforts in the direction of harmonizing our law with the European one. The paper takes a de lege ferenda approach, so the author explains the need to amend a number of laws, such as the Law on Environmental Impact Assessment, the Law on Strategic Environmental Assessment, the Law on Fees for the Use of Public Goods and the Law on Budget system, as well as the enactment of the Law on Climate Change and the Serbian Civil Code as soon as possible (in which dilemmas that hinder the subjects of law in using the environmental lawsuit as an instrument of environmental protection should be resolved). An unacceptable deviation from one of the fundamental principles established by the Rio Declaration was pointed out, which brings with it a number of structural problems and the inability of both the Green Fund institutions and a number of organizations that focus on ecology. The consequences of the discrepancy between the intentions proclaimed by the Constitution of Serbia and the National Strategy of Serbia for the accession of Serbia and Montenegro to the European Union from 2005 on the one hand and the absence of adequate legislative and executive activities in environmental protection, on the other hand, are obvious in the reports of the European Commission and the European Environment Office, as well as in the health risk and increased mortality of a large number of citizens of Serbia and other European countries, due to harmful emissions that cause pollution of air, water and soil in our country. In addition to the proposals for changes in the formal framework in the field of environmental protection, the paper points out the need to use those mechanisms of civil protection, such as environmental lawsuits (established by the Law on Obligations 1978), which is, by its nature, actio popularis and in that sense accessible to the widest range of subjects. The defense of the standards established by the Kyoto Protocol and the Basel Convention would, through the extensive use of this procedural instrument, be placed not only in the hands of representatives of the legislature and the executive, but also, the judiciary (conditionally, of course, because courts can decide only initiate a civil action, but not on its own initiative).

Yekaterina Y. Kontar, Alik Ismail-Zadeh, Paul Arthur Berkman et al.

This paper analyses science diplomacy efforts to reduce disaster risks and proposes establishing national knowledge exchange centers (KECs) to help individual states adhere to their Sendai Framework goals. KECs are considered to be interconnected globally and work together to promote resilience efforts by facilitating sharing of information and strategies in risk monitoring, assessment, and ultimately reduction across the globe. KECs can provide high-quality scientific evidence for informed decisionmaking along with a component related to disaster science media to ensure that appropriate knowledge reaches a variety of people who need it in different forms tailored for them. KECs can promote transdisciplinary education in disaster-related science diplomacy (i.e., disaster diplomacy). The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR) and the International Science Council (ISC) can provide assistance to KECs through UNDRR National Platforms and ISC Members.

Md Nazmul Alam, Joseph R. Matson, Patrick Sohr et al.

Heterostructures including the members of the 6.1Å semiconductor family (AlSb, GaSb, and InAs) are used in infrared optoelectronic devices as well as a variety of other applications. Short-period superlattices of these materials are also of interest for creating composite materials with designer infrared dielectric functions. The conditions needed to create sharp InAs/GaSb and InAs/AlSb interfaces are well known, but the AlSb/GaSb interface is much less well-understood. In this article, we test a variety of interventions designed to improve interface sharpness in AlSb/GaSb short-period superlattices. These interventions include substrate temperature, III:Sb flux ratio, and the use of a bismuth surfactant. Superlattices are characterized by high-resolution x-ray diffraction and infrared spectroscopy. We find that AlSb/GaSb short-period superlattices have a wide growth window over which sharp interfaces can be obtained.