Hasil untuk "Finnic. Baltic-Finnic"

S. A. Myznikov

This article is a continuation of the work on the results in the lexical sphere of contacts between the Baltic-Finnic population and adjacent dialects and languages. The work presents an analysis of the processes of mastering a number of units of Baltic-Finnic origin fin the etymological aspect against a broad background. This article is a reflection of some results from the development of this topic. When studying non-native flexion, its analysis encounters problems mediated by the oral form of existence of such data. In some cases, it is quite difficult to record with sufficient completeness all variants of a word that go back to a single etymon, both diachronic and territorial, which may in the future lead to not entirely correct conclusions regarding the search and development of their sources. The work used various types of sources both on the Finno-Ugric languages and on Russian dialects. Significant materials were obtained during field studies of the languages and dialects of the North-West. It is noted that borrowed and substrate Karelian-Veps data represent material that may have various possibilities for etymological analysis. Transformations often occur as a result of some infrequent phonetic changes and may also be a consequence of the search for the internal form of a word. This can occur both with borrowed and native data. In a number of cases, fin the course of etymological analysis of a significant number of dialect data of donor and recipient languages, it is possible to identify a kind of regular phonetic changes that help to verify etymological versions. The materials considered allow us to state various models of transformation of the original form of a word both fin the process of borrowing or assimilation of non-native data, which can be caused by various circumstances. Most often such processes occur on the basis of phonetic changes that accumulate during the existence of a lexeme fin a separate dialect system or during its territorial migration. Quite often transformational changes are due to the uniqueness of the local dialect phonetic system. Various kinds of transformations are especially characteristic of the vocabulary recorded fin folklore texts.

Anastasia Agdzhoyan, Georgy Ponomarev, V. Pylev et al.

Background: Eastern Finnic populations, including Karelians, Veps, Votes, Ingrians, and Ingrian Finns, are a significant component of the history of Finnic populations, which have developed over ~3 kya. Yet, these groups remain understudied from a genetic point of view. Methods: In this work, we explore the gene pools of Karelians (Northern, Tver, Ludic, and Livvi), Veps, Ingrians, Votes, and Ingrian Finns using Y-chromosome markers (N = 357) and genome-wide autosomes (N = 67) and in comparison with selected Russians populations of the area (N = 763). The data are analyzed using statistical, bioinformatic, and cartographic methods. Results: The autosomal gene pool of Eastern Finnic populations can be divided into two large categories based on the results of the PCA and ADMIXTURE modeling: (a) “Karelia”: Veps, Northern, Ludic, Livvi, and Tver Karelians; (b) “Ingria”: Ingrians, Votes, Ingrian Finns. The Y-chromosomal gene pool of Baltic Finns is more diverse and is composed of four genetic components. The “Northern” component prevails in Northern Karelians and Ingrian Finns, the “Karelian” in Livvi, Ludic, and Tver Karelians, the “Ingrian-Veps” in Ingrians and Veps (a heterogeneous cluster occupying an intermediate position between the “Northern” and the “Karelian” ones), and the “Southern” in Votes. Moreover, our phylogeographic analysis has found that the Y-haplogroup N3a4-Z1927 carriers are frequent among most Eastern Finnic populations, as well as among some Northern Russian and Central Russian populations. Conclusions: The autosomal clustering reflects the major areal groupings of the populations in question, while the Y-chromosomal gene pool correlates with the known history of these groups. The overlap of the four Y-chromosomal patterns may reflect the eastern part of the homeland of the Proto-Finnic gene pool. The carriers of the Y-haplogroup N3a4-Z1927, frequent in the sample, had a common ancestor at ~2.4 kya, but the active spread of N3a4-Z1927 happened only at ~1.7–2 kya, during the “golden” age of the Proto-Finnic culture (the archaeological period of the “typical” Tarand graves). A heterogeneous Y-chromosomal cluster containing Ingrians, Veps, and Northern Russian populations, should be further studied.

Maciej Janicki, Kati Kallio, Mari Väina et al.

Anu Treikelder

This article presents a study of the use of Estonian elliptical interrogatives formed with kuidas nii (‘how so’) in literary texts of the Estonian-French parallel corpus, focusing on their discourse functions. Kuidas nii interrogatives are analysed as surprise questions, expressing the speaker’s surprise with regard to an unexpected situation verbalised in the prior turn and the speaker’s request for an explanation. In combination with the particle nii (‘so’), the wh-word kuidas (‘how’) has always a why-like use. These interrogatives are analysed as mixed speech acts featuring both exclamative and interrogative properties that appear to different degrees depending on the context. The two main discourse functions identified in the corpus foreground one of these components: clarification request with a high asking force and denial/disagreement with a more prominent exclamative component related to the speaker’s attitude. The study of translations reveals a great affinity between French comment ça and kuidas nii. Kokkuvõte. Anu Treikelder: Kuidas nii, kalapulki?! Ühest üllatusküsimusest eesti keeles. Selles artiklis uuritakse elliptiliste kuidas nii-küsimuste kasutust Eesti-prantsuse paralleelkorpuse kirjanduslikes tekstides, keskendudes nende diskursiivsetele funktsioonidele. Kuidas nii-küsimusi vaadeldakse kui üllatusküsimusi, mis väljendavad kõneleja üllatust kaaskõneleja eelnevas voorus esitatu või tema kõneakti suhtes ja kõneleja soovi saada selgitusi ootuspäratu olukorra kohta. Koos partikliga nii on küsisõnal alati põhjuslik, küsisõnaga miks sarnane tähendus. Kuidas nii-küsimusi käsitletakse artiklis kui „segatüüpi“ kõneakte, millel on nii küsimuse kui hüüatuse tunnused, mida vastavalt kontekstile rohkem või vähem rõhutatakse. Korpusenäidete põhjal võib eristada kuidas nii-küsimuste kahte põhilist funktsiooni: selgituse küsimine (mille puhul küsiv komponent on esiplaanil) ja eitamine või mittenõustumine (mille puhul rõhk on pigem kõneleja hoiakut väljendaval hüüatuslikul komponendil). Prantsuskeelsete vastete uurimine näitas, et küsifraasil comment ça/cela on kuidas nii-küsimusega väga sarnased kasutused.

Miina Norvik, E. Saar

This paper discusses comparative constructions in the Finnic languages. The main focus is on the southern Finnic languages with separate attention paid to dialect variation. By including a maximally complete micro­areal dataset, the article reviews already identified patterns and their spread, while also introducing some (later) developments that have received less attention or gone unnoticed. The results are viewed in the context of neighbouring non­cognate contact languages (Latvian, Latgalian, and Russian); some parallels are also drawn with Lithuanian. As appears, due to being at the crossroads of Finnic and Baltic, it is in the southernmost Finnic languages where the genuine separative comparative construction meets various other patterns, including those borrowed from the Baltic languages. In general, the results enable us to shed more light on the outcomes of more ancient as well as more recent contact situations. The linguistic data originate from text collections, language corpora, example sentences in dictionaries and grammar books, and our own field work data.

L. Vaba

R. Grünthal

Abstract In the contemporary northern Baltic Sea area, there are two states, Finland and Estonia, in which a western Uralic language has an official status. Several Finnic minority languages are or used to be spoken in the adjacent areas in the contact zone of Baltic, Germanic and Slavic languages. Historically, the north-eastern surroundings of the Gulf of Finland reflect a gradual spread of the language area during the past millennium and especially the late Middle Ages, while more southern areas in contemporary Estonia, and its eastern neighbourhood in Russia show longer continuity of language borders. The Finnic languages were used predominantly orally until very recently, whereas written language began to affect non-standard varieties more strongly only in the 19th and 20th centuries. The diversification of the Finnic languages in the Northeastern Baltic Sea area involves both integration and disintegration of mutually closely related varieties. This article focuses on i) the variability of changes and their correlation with emerging divergence between Finnic languages, ii) local language contacts during the late Middle Ages and the Early Modern age, and iii) the rate of linguistic change. The external powers affecting the diversity between the Finnic languages include the settling of early Swedish, German and Slavic centres among or in the vicinity of Finnic communities, the policies of medieval Catholic and Orthodox church, the extension of the trading networks of the Hanseatic League, wars and conflicts between dominant political powers in the east and west, as well as the gradual establishment of political borders. I will suggest that all these factors have played a role in the rate of both lexical and grammatical change.

Mikael Varjo, Hanna Jokela

Tutkimme kyselytestin avulla sitä, miten edistyneet S2-oppijat tunnistavat erilaisia nollasubjektilauseita ja missä määrin S2-vastaajien nollasubjektikäsityksissä voi havaita kiteytymistä. Koska nollapersoonalla ei ole omaa kieliopillista tunnusta toisin kuin esimerkiksi (yksipersoonaisella) passiivilla, pyrimme selvittämään, millaiset nollasubjektilauseet ovat edistyneen tason S2-oppijoiden mielestä luontevimpia. Samalla testaamme erilaisten kyselytehtävien toimivuutta ja niiden hyötyjä oppijankielen tutkimukselle. Nollapersoona saa usein esimerkiksi S2-oppikirjoissa passiivia vähemmän huomiota, mikä saattaa johtua siitä, että sen lähestyminen on spesifien muotopiirteiden puuttumisen takia vaikeaa. Tästä on seurannut tietynlaisten nollapersoonalauseiden, esimerkiksi modaaliverbin sisältävien lauseiden, korostuminen S2-opetuksessa. Koska nollapersoona (ja nollasubjekti) on kuitenkin ilmiönä frekventti sekä arkipuheessa että akateemisissa teksteissä, on sen tunnistaminen ja käyttöyhteyksien hallinta oleellista myös oppijankielelle. Kyselytestissä on hyödynnetty puhutun kielen aineistosta tehtyä korpustutkimusta. Tulokset viittaavat siihen, että nollasubjektilauseiden tulkinta on S2-oppijoille usein haastavaa ja nollasubjektilauseiden luontevuuden tulkintaan vaikuttaa etenkin verbisemantiikka, ei esimerkiksi lauseen konstituenttien keskinäinen järjestys.

J. Raunamaa

The article studies pre-Christian Finnic anthroponyms and their spread in the northern Baltic Sea area at the end of Middle Ages (c. AD 1520). This is done by analysing village names based on pre-Christian Finnic personal name elements. The primary research material consists of various editions of documents from the 15th and 16th centuries. The analysis demonstrates that village names based on pre-Christian Finnic anthroponyms are most densely located in Varsinais-Suomi, Häme, Northern and Eastern Estonia, Southern Karelia, the Karelian Isthmus and Eastern Ingria. The first four areas are home to significant Iron Age settlements. It seems that the use of the pre-Christian Finnic name elements under investigation originally started in these areas and spread eastwards.

G. Manzelli

Pire Teras

Selles artiklis käsitletakse sõnaalgulise /h/ hääldamist. Varem tehtud uurimused on osutanud /h/ häälduse olenemisele suhtlusolukorrast: argisuhtluses jääb /h/ tihti hääldamata, aga teksti lugedes ja avalikus suhtluses juhtub seda pigem harva. Lisaks suhtlusolukorrale on leitud muidki /h/ hääldust mõjutavaid tegureid. Tähelepanu ei ole aga pööratud sellele, kuivõrd varieerub /h/ hääldus samal kõnelejal eri suhtlusolukorras. Kaheksa keelejuhi häälduse analüüs näitab, et kõik hääldavad /h/-d rohkem avalikus kui argisuhtluses. Peamiseks /h/ hääldamist mõjutavaks teguriks osutus sõna lauserõhulisus: /h/-d hääldatakse oluliselt sagedamini rõhulistes kui rõhututes sõnades. Rõhuliste sõnade puhul oli keelejuhtide vahel oluline erinevus: kaks keelejuhti hääldas /h/-d teistest oluliselt vähem (enim rõhulistes sõnades pärast pausi ja vokaaliga lõppevat sõna ning harva esinevates sõnades), teised hääldasid /h/-d pea alati avalikus suhtluses ning argisuhtluses enim lausungialgulistes ja -lõpulistes sõnades. Rõhututes sõnades hääldas enamik keelejuhte /h/-d oluliselt rohkem avalikus suhtluses ning argisuhtluses hääldasid kõik kõnelejad /h/-d oluliselt rohkem pärast pausi. Abstract. Pire Teras: Pronunciation of word-initial /h/ by same speakers in formal and informal speech. In the present paper, the pronunciation of word-initial /h/ is considered. Previous research has pointed to the influence of the communicative situation: in informal speech /h/ is frequently dropped, but while reading texts and in formal speech this rarely happens. In addition, other factors influencing the pronunciation of /h/ have been found. However, no attention has been paid to how the same speaker pronounces the wordinitial /h/ in different communicative situations. This analysis of the pronunciation of eight speakers shows that all of them retained /h/ more often in formal than in informal speech. The main factor influencing the pronunciation of /h/ is accentuation: /h/ is pronounced significantly more often in accented than in deaccented words. In the case of accented words, differences between speakers were found: two speakers dropped /h/ significantly more often (/h/ was more often retained after a pause, after a vowel-final word and in not frequent words), others pronounced it almost always in formal speech and in informal speech they used it more often in utterance initial and final words. In deaccented words, /h/ was significantly more often pronounced in formal speech (except for two speakers) and in informal speech after a pause. Keywords: phonetics, word-initial /h/, variation, Estonian

Mária Gósy, Ákos Gocsál

Temporal properties of words are defined by physiological, psychical, and language-specific factors. Lexical representations are assumed to be stored either in a morphologically decomposed form or in a conceptually non-decomposed form. We assumed that the duration of words with and without suffixes would refer to the route of their lexical access. Measured durations of Hungarian nouns with various lengths produced by 10 speakers in spontaneous utterances revealed significant differences, depending on the words’ morphological structures. Durations of monomorphemic nouns were shorter than those of multimorphemic nouns, irrespective of the number of syllables they contained. Our interpretation is that multimorphemic words are accessed decompositionally in spontaneous speech, meaning that stem activation of the semantic representation is followed by activation of one or more suffixes. Durational differences of monomorphemic and multimorphemic words were not stable across word lengths. The number of suffixes did not influence the words’ temporal patterns. Kokkuvõte. Mária Gósy ja Ákos Gocsál: Sufiksiga ja sufiksita sõnade ajaline struktuur spontaanses ungari keeles. Sõnade ajalised omadused sõltuvad füsioloogilistest, psühholoogilistest ja keelespetsiifilistest teguritest. Eelduste kohaselt on sõnad mentaalses leksikonis representeeritud kas morfeemideks analüüsituna või tervikmõistena. Uurimuses lähtuti eeldusest, et sufiksiga ja sufiksita sõnade kestus viitab sellele, kuidas juurdepääs neile toimub. Mõõdeti kümne kõneleja spontaansetes lausungites produtseeritud eri pikkusega ungari nimisõnade kestust. Ilmnes, et kestus sõltus oluliselt sõna morfoloogilisest ülesehitusest. Tüvisõnade kestus oli tuletiste omast lühem, sõltumata silpide arvust sõnas. Järelduseks saadi, et juurdepääs tuletistele toimub spontaanses kõnes osade kaupa: tüve semantilise representatsiooni aktiveerimisele järgneb sufiksi või sufiksite aktiveerimine. Tüvisõnade ja tuletiste kestuserinevused olid eri pikkusega sõnade puhul erinevad. Sufiksite arv sõna ajalist struktuuri ei mõjutanud. Märksõnad: kestus, nimisõnad, tüvisõnad ja tuletised, leksikaalne juurdepääs, spontaansed lausungid

Patrick O’Rourke

This article presents a study of Livonian social networks in the beginning of the 20th century during a time of language shift. In this study, I examine whether the Livonian communities were experiencing a language shift irrespective of the population displacements during the two World Wars, which has often been given as the main reason for the Livonian language shift to Latvian. I apply the Network Strength Scale to examine if social network centrality played a role in the language shift. The study focuses on the Livonian villages of Vaid and Sīkrõg and social factors relevant to the mapping of the social network are taken from Edgar Vaalgamaa’s survey in 1935–1937. The results indicate that generational differences played a more important role than centrality in the social network in determining Latvian influence. Kokkuvõte. Patrick O’Rourke: Liivi keele sotsiaalsed võrgustikud ja keele vahetus. Artikkel tutvustab uurimust Kuramaa liivlaste sotsiaalsetest võrgustikest 20. sajandi esimesel poolel, kui keelevahetus liivi keelelt läti keelele oli juba alanud. Autor vaatleb, kuivõrd liivi kogukondades sõltus keelevahetus kahe maailmasõja aegsest elanikkonna deporteerimisest, mida on tavaliselt peetud keelevahetuse põhjuseks. Rakendatakse suhtlusvõrgustike tugevuse analüüsi, et selgitada, kas isiku keskne asend sotsiaalses võrgustikus oli keelevahetuse jaoks oluline. Uurimus keskendub liivi küladele Vaid ja Sīkrõg. Sotsiaalsete võrgustike kaardistamiseks on valitud olulised tegurid Edgar Vaalgamaa poolt aastatel 1935–1937 läbi viidud küsitluse põhjal. Tulemused näitavad, et läti keele mõju ulatus sõltub rohkem põlvkondlikest erinevustest kui isiku asendist sotsiaalses võrgustikus. Artikkel põhineb autori magistritööl, mis on kaitstud 2016. aastal Yorki Ülikoolis. Märksõnad: ajalooline lingvistika, sotsiolingvistika, sotsiaalsed võrgustikud, keelevahetus, liivi keel Kubbõvõttõks. Patrick O’Rourke: Līvõ kīel sotsiālizt võrgõd ja kīel vaidimi. Kēra tuņšlõb Kurāmō līvõd sotsiāliži võrgidi 20. āigastsadā ežmizõs pūolsõ, ku vȯļ irgõn līvõ kīel vaidimi lețkīelkõks. Kēratiji vaņțlõb, kui ulzõ ajjimi kōd mōilmasuodā āigal mȯjīz kīel vaidimiz līvõd kubgõņis. Sīe pierāst um kõlbātõd rovst võrgõd viššit analīz. Analīz abkõks um seļțõd, või se, ku rištīngõn um vȯnd sidāmi kūož sotsiālizt võrgõd sizāl, um vȯnd ka tǟdzi kīel vaidimiz āigal. Tuņšlimizõs amā jemīņ ātõ vaņțõltõd līvõd kilād Vaid ja Sīkrõg. Sotsiālizt võrgõd tǟtimiz pierāst um kȭlbatõd Edgar Vālgamō 1935.–1937. āigast tīedõd rovkizzimi. Tuņšlimi nägțõb, ku lețkīel mȯjjimi jemīņ um sidtõd sugkazāmõks, äbku rištīng kūožõks sotsiālizt võrgõd sizāl. Kēra alīzõks um kēratijiz magistõrtīe, mis um kaitstõd 2016. āigasts York Iļīzskūols.

Riina Reinsalu

"The communication between the citizen and local authority via the information request" Citizens’ approaches to public offices, with a view to gain certain information, are regulated by the Public Information Act of 2001. According to the law, citizens can put forward their information requests either orally (at the premises or over the phone) or in writing (by mail, fax, email, etc.) and public offices are obligated to respond within five working days. For this dialogical communication to be efficient, both parties must follow well-developed and tacitly accepted communication practices. According to Swales’ (1990) genre theory, the analysis of the inner structure of information requests demonstrates that a prototypical information request consists of six different steps: creating of a communicative situation, justification of the request, putting forward the main request, and if needed, also an additional request, offering additional information and of an ending of the communicative situation. Some differences can be found in the structure of the requests based on whether they were sent in via a web interface or by email. While a part of an information request sent in by email is also to end the particular communicative situation (email usually ends with polite wishes and sender’s name) then in information requests sent by web interfaces senders often limit themselves to only voicing their main request. The requests in the information requests analysed in this study are formulated mainly as pleas. The please-construction in the request helps to build a short and speedy information exchange and it also contributes towards decreasing the nature or tone of the request. For example, it allows one to use the imperative mood or to change a direct question into an indirect one. In addition to the pleading acts, Estonian information requests also contain wishing and asking acts whereas other ways of expressing the request (verbless constructions, order, expectation, hope and need) are represented only by a few cases in our analysed source material. The inner structure of information requests, and the way they are being expressed, forms interpersonal relations between the parties and offers possibilities for demonstrating one’s power. Since citizens usually limit themselves to the main information request without using any softening moves or giving any special attention to the communicative situation, the sender of the request puts oneself to a clear power position. The power relations are somewhat balanced by the way the request is being put forward for the request is being served as a plea or wish to officials. Officials’ replies do not, however, depend on whether the request was put in direct or indirect manner because they are obligated under the law to reply no matter what.

L. Vaba

Jane Klavan, Ann Veismann

Recent work in usage-based linguistics stresses the importance of combining corpus-based analyses with experimental studies. A number of studies have compared the performance of a corpus-based statistical model against the behaviour of native speakers in a linguistic experiment. The present paper takes this line of analysis further by combining corpus-based work with two sources of experimental data. A mixedeffects logistic regression model is fitted to the corpus data of the Estonian adessive case and the adposition peal ‘on’ in present-day written Estonian. In order to evaluate the goodness of the corpus-based model, its performance is compared to the behaviour of native speakers in a forced choice task and a rating task. Kokkuvõte. Jane Klavan ja Ann Veismann: Kas keelekasutajate valikud ja hinnangud peegeldavad korpuspõhiseid tõenäosushinnanguid? Eesti keele adessiivi ja kaassõna peal kasutus tänapäeva kirjakeeles. Tänapäevases kasutuspõhises keeleteaduses rõhutatakse vajadust kombineerida korpusandmetele toetuvat analüüsi katseliste uuringutega. Mitmed uurimused on võrrelnud korpusel põhineva statistilise mudeli headust emakeelsete kõnelejate käitumisega keelelistes katsetes. Käesolev artikkel jätkab seda uurimisliini, pannes võrdlusesse korpusandmetega kaks keelelist katset. Artiklis hinnatakse korpuspõhise segamudeli headust, võrreldes seda eesti keelt emakeelena kõnelejate käitumisega sunnitud valiku katses ja hinnangukatses. Uuritavaks nähtuseks on eesti keele adessiivi ja kaassõna peal rööpne kasutus kohasuhete väljendamisel tänapäeva kirjakeeles. Võtmesõnad: konstruktsioonilised alternatsioonid; korpuslingvistika; sunnitud valiku katse; hinnangukatse; statistiline mudeldamine; eesti keel

Helen Hint, Tiina Nahkola, Renate Pajusalu

In this paper, we compare the use and functions of definite and indefinite article-like determiners in Estonian and Finnish. Our main aim is to explore whether the factors that explain the choice of particular determiner forms are similar in Estonian and Finnish. We use a picture-sequence based elicitation experiment to collect spoken narratives from adult native speakers of Estonian and Finnish, and apply non-parametric tree and forest models to analyze the data. Our findings indicate that number of mention and animacy are important predictor variables in both languages, but their exact effect is divergent. We also find that in Finnish, case of the determiner NP proves to be an important factor, while in Estonian, syntactic role of the NP explains some aspects of determiner form choice. Nevertheless, the overall usage frequency of determiners is modest in the Estonian and Finnish data, and the process of grammaticalizing articles is only in initial stages in both languages. *** Artikliga, artiklita? Eesti ja soome keele artiklilaadsete määratlejate võrdlus Siinses uurimuses analüüsime võrdlevalt artiklilaadseid definiitseid ja indefiniitseid määratlejaid eesti ja soome keeles. Eelkõige kõrvutame eesti keele definiitset määratlejat see ja soome keele definiitseid määratlejaid se ja tämä ning eesti ja soome indefiniitset määratlejat üks/yks(i). Samuti vaatleme eesti keele possessiivpronoomeni oma ning soome 3sg possessiivsufiksi (-nsa/-nsä, -Vn) referentsiaalseid omadusi. Uurimuse põhieesmärgiks on selgitada, millised on peamised määratlejate kasutust mõjutavad keelelised faktorid eesti ja soome keeles ning kas need faktorid on keeliti sarnased või erinevad. Ühtlasi otsime vastust küsimusele, kas eesti ja soome keeles on põhjust rääkida määratlejate grammatisatsioonist artikliteks. Uuritav keelematerjal pärineb pildiseeria põhjal kogutud suulistest narratiividest. Uurimuses osales 20 eesti ja 20 soome keele emakeelset kõnelejat. Narratiivides esinevate viitavate määratlejaga ja määratlejata nimisõnafraaside (NP) analüüsiks rakendasime multifaktoriaalset analüüsi (tingimuslikke rekursiivseid otsustuspuid ja tingimuslikke juhumetsasid). Analüüsi tulemusel selgus, et ehkki määratlejate kasutust mõjutavad tegurid on eesti ja soome keeles kohati sarnased, esineb ka märkimisväärseid erinevusi. Näiteks eristuvad mõlemas keeles selgelt esmamainitud referentidele viitavad (seega indefiniitsed) NP-d korduvalt mainitud referentidele viitavatest (seega definiitsetest) NP-dest. Ka referendi elusus on mõlemas keeles määratleja valikut mõjutav faktor, kuid selle faktori mõju on erinev. Kui eesti keeles on referendi elusus oluliseks faktoriks esimesel mainimiskorral (üksNP viitab pigem elusale referendile), siis soome keeles ilmneb tendents, et elusus määrab hoopis määratlejate valikut hilisematel mainimiskordadel (seNP viitab pigem elututele ja tämäNP pigem elusatele referentidele). Analüüsist selgus ka, et eesti keeles sõltub määratleja see valik süntaktilisest rollist, nimelt mainitakse seeNP-dega eelkõige subjekte ja objekte. Soome keeles seevastu on oluline kääne: omaette rühma moodustavad NP-d ablatiivi või elatiivi käändes, milles esineb sageli määratlejatena lokatiivne adverbiaal. Ehkki eesti ja soome keele määratlejate kasutus ei ole juhuslik, esinevad määratlejaga NP-d meie materjalis siiski oluliselt harvemini kui määratlejata NP-d. Seega on määratlejate grammatiseerumine artiklites eesti ja soome keeles veel algstaadiumis ning definiitsuse avaldub nii eesti kui soome keeles veel selgelt pragmaatilise, mitte grammatilise kategooriana.

Nicole Nau, Jurgis Pakerys

Abstract In this paper we examine transitivity pairs in the two modern Baltic languages Lithuanian and Latvian and compare them to neighbouring Finnic (Finnish, Estonian) and Slavic (Russian, Polish) languages. In Slavic the main strategy is to derive the intransitive (noncausal) verb from the transitive (causal) verb, while in Finnic we find a high number of derived causatives. Baltic uses both techniques, and in addition, there is a higher number of pairs where either both verbs are marked, or two etymologically related verbs are underived from a synchronic point of view. Differences and similarities across the six languages are investigated, using a list of 20 notions divided into five groups. Special attention is paid to animacy and to the distinction between inchoative and durative noncausal verbs.

L. Vaba

J. Laakso