Hasil untuk "Commercial law"

Caleb Robinson, B. Dilkina, Jeffrey Hubbs et al.

S. Estrin, T. Mickiewicz, U. Stephan

We advance research on human capital and entrepreneurial entry and posit that, in order to generate value, social entrepreneurship requires different configurations of human capital than commercial entrepreneurship. We develop a multilevel framework to analyse the commonalities and differences between social and commercial entrepreneurship, including the impact of general and specific human capital, of national context and its moderating effect on the human capital-entrepreneurship relationship. We find that specific entrepreneurial human capital is relatively more important in commercial entrepreneurship, and general human capital in social entrepreneurship, and that the effects of human capital depend on the rule of law.

Shiya Ma

With the rapid advancement of digital technologies, commercial data have emerged as fundamental elements of the digital economy, demonstrating increasing significance. Characterized by their intangible nature, non-rivalry, and non-excludability, commercial data exhibit substantial compatibility with intellectual property subject matter. The inherent flexibility of intellectual property regimes, coupled with the convergent legislative values of data protection and intellectual property governance, establishes both the feasibility and legitimacy of protecting commercial data within intellectual property frameworks. This context renders the introduction of a categorized protection approach that is theoretically valuable and practically significant. Within the framework of the intellectual property rights system, a classified protection system can be established based on the different characteristics of commercial data. For data collections that are original selections, the protection rules for compilations in copyright law can be applied. For commercial data that meet the requirements of secrecy, value, and confidentiality, protection can be provided through the trade secret system. For general commercial data that have been deeply processed but lack originality or secrecy, exploring the establishment of a new type of data intellectual property rights system is necessary in order to achieve a balance of interests by granting limited exclusive rights. Such differentiated protection mechanisms would systematically address the heterogeneous nature of commercial data assets while maintaining appropriate incentives for data production and circulation in digital markets.

Camilo Guzman, Salim Mattar, Nelson Alvis-Guzman et al.

Abstract: During the pandemic, Latin American countries suffered the collapse of their health systems. This was caused by the high demand for care of patients infected with SARS-CoV-2, which was added to the care of patients with other diseases. The significant increase in demand for health services caused medical and laboratory supplies to decline rapidly. The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated a health crisis in several developing countries, mainly caused by insufficient systematic policies for integrating scientific knowledge. The current Colombian government must formulate a Biotechnological or Biosecurity Sovereignty Law that guarantees scientific autonomy, ensuring that Colombia is self-sufficient in Science, Technology, and Innovation. Colombian government should also focus on establishing and developing pharmaceutical chemical production by acquiring active chemical ingredients from other countries. This strategy could reduce the production costs and final prices of medicines, as well as generate high-level employment and wealth for the country. In this way, the Colombian government could prevent shortage of essential medicines and excessive price increases by commercial intermediation. In conclusion, the manuscript focuses on the lack of biotechnological sovereignty in Colombia. We propose a model of a Latin American Science and Technology ecosystem to achieve biotechnological sovereignty via state funding of research, strengthening universities, and fostering participation among private companies and Ministries of Science, Education, Trade, and Health. Scientific autonomy based on innovative processes that strengthen biotechnological independence can contribute to the economy by generating gross added value, creating high-quality employment, and facilitating the appropriation and social dissemination of knowledge, and cost reduction.

Pablo Manterola Domínguez

Este trabajo analiza la acción de disolución judicial, prevista para la sociedad anónima cerrada chilena, desde un punto de vista procesal. Aunque la Ley sobre Sociedades Anónimas de 1981 ofrece algunas indicaciones, varios puntos relativos al ejercicio de este remedio no son regulados o lo son de forma indirecta, como el alcance de la discrecionalidad judicial o la arbitrabilidad del conflicto. Además de esos puntos, se estudia el objeto del proceso, que determina el carácter constitutivo de la sentencia estimatoria, a quiénes corresponde la legitimación activa y pasiva, y cómo se relacionan cumplimiento de la sentencia y liquidación societaria.

Atika Rani Dyah Safitri, Antiko Wati, Warah Atikah

Abstract: A land title certificate is legal and concrete evidence of ownership and control of land. Its permanent nature and high value make land a stable and safe collateral for banks to disburse credit. However, this is an obstacle for land owners who do not yet have a certificate for the land they own and control, have complete proof of ownership of the land or rights, or do not even have proof of ownership. In the Pagar Alam District Court Decision Numbers: 6/Pdt.G.S/2021/PN Pga Using collateral in the form of land and buildings with proof of ownership SPPFBT No. 593/06/MS.Dp.U/2018. This obstacle makes it an option for that land that does not have a land title certificate as stated in Article 4 UUHT, to make an Ownership Statement of Land Parcel (SPPFBT) as an option for the community to use as collateral for bank credit. However, SPPFBT is a statement letter made unilaterally by the applicant that contains juridical data related to land control based on good faith, the authority is not as perfect as an authentic deed. Bearing in mind that, if there is bad credit in the credit agreement, the funds can be auctioned to fulfill the rights and obligations of the credit agreement between the debtor and creditor. In an implementation, banks must be careful in assessing the character, capabilities, capital, collateral, and business prospect funds of debtors, as well as formulating regulations regarding the use of SPPFBT as bank collateral for uncertified land to protect the rights and obligations of the Bank and credit applicants. Clearly, to provide legal certainty and protection. Keywords: SPPFBT, Uncertificated, Collateral, Bad Credit, KPKNL.   Abstrak: Sertifikat hak atas tanah merupakan bukti yang sah, konkret atas kepemilikan dan penguasaan atas tanah. Namun, merupakan kendala bagi pemilik tanah yang belum memiliki sertifikat atas tanah yang dimiliki dan dikuasainya, kepemilikan bukti tanah atau alas hak secara lengkap bahkan sama sekali tidak memiliki bukti kepemilikan. Dalam Putusan Pengadilan Negeri Pagar Alam Nomor: 6/Pdt.G.S/2021/PN Pga menggunakan agunan berupa tanah dan/atau bangunan dengan bukti kepemilikan SPPFBT Nomor: 593/06/MS.Dp.U/2018. Hal tersebut menjadikan sebuah opsi bahwasanya tanah yang tidak memiliki sertifikat sebagaimana disebutkan dalam Pasal 4 UUHT, dapat menjadikan Surat Pernyataan Penguasaan Fisik Bidang (SPPFBT) sebagai opsi bagi masyarakat sebagai agunan kredit bank. Namun, SPPFBT merupakan surat pernyataan yang dibuat sepihak oleh pemohon berisikan data yuridis terkait penguasaan tanah berdasarkan itikad baik, sehingga kekuatannya tidak sesempurna akta autentik. Mengingat bahwa, apabila terdapat kredit macet dalam perjanjian kredit, agunan tersebut dapat dilakukan lelang guna memenuhi hak dan kewajiban atas perjanjian kredit antara debitur dan kreditur. Sehingga, dalam pelaksanaannya bank haruslah seksama menilai terhadap watak, kemampuan, modal, agunan, dana prospek usaha dari debitur, pula perumusan pengaturan mengenai penggunaan SPPFBT sebagai agunan bank atas tanah yang belum bersertifikat untuk melindungi hak dan kewajiban Bank dan Pemohon kredit haruslah jelas, guna upaya memberikan kepastian dan perlindungan hukum. Kata Kunci: SPPFBT, Agunan, Tanah Tidak Bersertifikat, Kredit Macet, KPKNL.

Nuriyah Fara Muthia, Juajir Sumardi, Maskun Maskun

This research aims to analyze the legal implications of the increase in space debris generated through space commercialization activities. This research uses a normative legal method using a qualitative approach to determine the application of law in commercial activities carried out in space. The results of this study, namely: (1) the increase in space junk cases caused by commercial activities in space is increasing until 2022 due to various satellites being launched and causing junk to scatter freely in space. The rules of the Outer Space Treaty 1967 are still unable to guarantee legal certainty so that all parties carrying out commercial activities in space obey them; (2) the calculation of damage caused by commercial activities in space will result in liability that has been regulated in the Space Liability Convention 1972 that there are two legal principles governing the responsibility for compensation carried out by all parties in space, both state and private parties.

Nicolás Toro Garcés

La aplicación de los artículos 178 y 180 de la Ley 1607 de 2012, en cuya virtud se regularon los procedimientos de determinación y sancionatorios que adelanta la Unidad de Gestión Pensional y Parafiscal (UGPP) en el marco del ejercicio de sus facultades relacionadas con el control y vigilancia del cumplimiento de las obligaciones asociadas a los aportes parafiscales al sistema general de la seguridad social, podría constituir situaciones jurídicas generadoras de conflictos o de diferencia de criterios entre los contribuyentes y la administración. Lo anterior, como quiera que en las mencionadas disposiciones el legislador omitió establecer un término perentorio para la notificación del requerimiento para declarar o corregir, y para la notificación del pliego de cargos. Dicho aspecto, sin duda, amerita una revisión sobre la constitucionalidad de estos artículos al poder ser violatorios de principios o derechos fundamentales de los particulares.

Laura Baccaglini

SOMMARIO: 1. La protezione del patrimonio nella composizione negoziata della crisi. – 2. Il contenuto delle misure protettive. – 3. La selettività soggettiva delle misure protettive. – 4. (segue) Quando, e fino a quando, è possibile una selezione delle misure protettive, o dei loro destinatari. – 5. Le misure cautelari. – 6. Profili processuali del procedimento di conferma, revoca modifica delle misure protettive e/o concessione delle misure cautelari. - 7. Il vaglio del giudice in sede di conferma (o revoca) delle misure protettive. – 8. La durata delle misure protettive: la loro proroga e revoca. Presupposti e procedimento. – 9. Revoca o mancata conferma delle misure protettive e decorrenza degli effetti.

P. Giliker

Classically a duty to negotiate commercial contracts in good faith has been seen as part of the civil, not the common, law world. Common law commercial lawyers have long resisted the lure of “good faith” as a contractual concept, despite engagement with civil law principles in harmonisation projects, by virtue of membership of the European Union and their use in international conventions such as the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG). This paper will examine whether this situation is changing, focusing on two common law jurisdictions—England and Wales and Canada. In England and Wales and the common law of Canada, case-law in the last 10 years has indicated a movement towards acceptance of express and implied duties of good faith in relation to contractual performance, see e.g. Yam Seng Pte Limited v International Trade Corporation Limited [2013] EWHC 111 (QB) and, most recently, Essex CC v UBB Waste (Essex) Ltd (No. 2) [2020] EWHC 1581 (TCC) in England and Wales; Bhasin v Hrynew 2014 SCC 71 and Callow v Zollinger 2020 SCC 45 in Canada. This paper will examine the extent to which these cases may open the way more generally for a duty to negotiate commercial contracts in good faith. It will examine the reception of these cases and whether they indicate (i) greater acceptance of “good faith” as part of contract law thinking and (ii) a possible extension of good faith into the pre-contractual period.

P. Hacker

Kerem Cem Sanlı, Cihan Doğan

Digital platforms have become significant for the operation of the global economy, as they bring numerous benefits for consumers and undertakings, but the widespread use of most favored nation (MFN) clauses in e-commerce poses important challenges for policymakers. Ordinarily, such clauses have been implemented in traditional industries; however, the economic dynamics of e-commerce have made these clauses a cornerstone for digital platforms, as they enable platforms to adhere to competitive price guarantees. Unlike traditional MFN clauses, platform MFN clauses, which include restrictions on consumer purchase price, have a significant restrictive impact on the market and are often the subject of complaints from commercial users, such as retailers, restaurants, and hotels. Thus, platform MFN clauses have been the subject of scrutiny by competition authorities in recent years, and under some conditions, these clauses have been found problematic. MFN clauses are examined under narrow and wide headings, and primarily wide MFN clauses (depending on the existence of market power) are prohibited. Nevertheless, narrow MFN clauses are considered legal; however, under certain conditions, narrow MFN clauses may also harm the competitive environment in the market. This is particularly the case for scenarios of high market power of the platform for which the narrow MFN clause is accepted, and the direct channel serves as an important alternative for consumers. This study aims to examine the conditions under which such clauses can pose competition law risks and to distinguish scenarios in which the competition law interference of narrow MFN clauses is likely.

I. Bantekas, P. Ortolani, Shahla F. Ali et al.

This book provides a comprehensive commentary on the UNCITRAL Model Law on International Arbitration. Combining both theory and practice, it is written by leading academics and practitioners from Europe, Asia and the Americas to ensure the book has a balanced international coverage. The book not only provides an article-by-article critical analysis, but also incorporates information on the reality of legal practice in UNCITRAL jurisdictions, ensuring it is more than a recitation of case law and variations in legal text. This is not a handbook for practitioners needing a supportive citation, but rather a guide for practitioners, legislators and academics to the reasons the Model Law was structured as it was, and the reasons variations have been adopted.

Saru Arifin, Sonny S. Wicaksono, Slamet Sumarto et al.

This article will address the disaster resilience village (DRV) approach as a disaster preparedness method in Indonesia. This scheme became operational in 2012, exactly 5 years after disaster management legislation was passed in 2007. This DRV strategy is a component of the central government’s decentralisation of disaster management to local governments. Using a method of doctrinal legal review, this study argues that the DRV approach to disaster preparedness at the village level is inefficient. That is because the village apparatus is the central player in this DRV, but residents of disaster-prone areas are regarded as an afterthought when it comes to disaster management. Consequently, efforts to strengthen emergency preparedness for residents in disaster-prone areas will be harmed. As a result, it is unsurprising that whenever a disaster occurs in Indonesia, the death toll and damage to property remain high. This is because people who live in disaster-prone areas lack a framework for transforming knowledge and scientific experience with disasters. In addition, this DRV strategy opposes previous disaster experts’ community-based and transformative approaches. However, direct field research on communities living in disaster-prone areas is needed to obtain empirical evidence of the DRV approach’s shortcomings.

M. Cheung, D. Law, J. Yip et al.

There is an ongoing debate about whether emotional responses to artworks are similar to those produced by the commercial stimuli experienced in everyday life. In this study, we evaluated the emotional responses to the visual art and commercial stimuli by using electroencephalography (EEG) to obtain an objective measure of emotional responses of the brain, namely the frontal alpha asymmetry. Positive frontal alpha asymmetry suggests positive emotional responses, and vice versa. The visual art stimuli consisted of 80 artistic and naturally colored paintings whereas the commercial stimuli consisted of 80 different window displays of fashion collections. The results revealed that positive frontal alpha asymmetry was elicited when the participants judged the visual art stimuli as either beautiful or not beautiful. For the commercial stimuli, positive frontal alpha asymmetry was observed when they were considered as beautiful, whereas negative frontal alpha asymmetry was exhibited toward those perceived as not beautiful. These findings suggest more positive emotional responses to the visual art stimuli, regardless of their aesthetics. However, favorable emotional responses were only elicited toward the commercial stimuli regarded as beautiful. The implications for the creative and aesthetic design of the commercial stimuli in Chinese society in influencing consumers’ emotional responses are discussed.

Gaizka Saldana, Jose Ignacio San Martin, Inmaculada Zamora et al.

Battery degradation is one of the key barriers to the correct deployment of electric vehicle technology. Therefore, it is necessary to model, with sufficient precision, the State of Health (SoH) of batteries at every moment to know if they are useful as well as to develop operating strategies aimed at lifetime maximization. This paper presents a commercial electric vehicle with a nickel-cobalt-manganese (NCM) battery cell model that is composed of electrical and degradation submodels given by cycling aging. The studied cell is an LG Chem E63 cell, which is used in Renault Zoe electric vehicles. This degradation model is based on experimental results that are interpolated in the Hermite Cubic Interpolation Polynomial (PCHIP), with the exception of the number of cycles, whose impact is determined by a potential law. Temperature and C-rate are found to be the most influential factors in the aging of these batteries. The degradation model developed presents an RMSE of 1.12% in capacity fade and 2.63% in power fade. Furthermore, an application of the model is presented, in which high demanding (highway), average demanding (mixed), and low demanding (urban) driving environments are analyzed in terms of degradation.

Muhammad Irfan Hilmy, Muhammad Fadhali Yusuf

Force majeure becomes one of debtor's objections when there is a default in an agreement. In determining the circumstances included in the force majeure criteria, the judge considers the clause of the agreement and the effect that results from a situation on the fulfillment of the achievement. Every incident may not be said to be a force majeure because it sees how much influence factors that influence achievement of achievement. Force majeure is determined because of several things based on the cause, nature, subject, and scope. Juridical provisions related to force majeure in Indonesia are contained in the Civil Code, Laws and Jurisprudence. This paper will discuss the practice of determining force majeure in Indonesia, which refers to a judge's decision that sets a situation as a force majeure. The purpose of this paper is to find out the judge's analysis in rejecting or establishing a forceful situation. The research method used in this paper is normative juridical or also called doctrinal law research. The author refers and reviews the jurisprudence that discusses force majeure to find out the differences in analysis caused by differences in case backgrounds.   Abstrak Force majeure menjadi salah satu tangkisan debitur ketika terjadi wanprestasi dalam suatu perjanjian. Dalam menentukan keadaan yang masuk dalam kriteria force majeure hakim mempertimbangkan klausula perjanjian serta pengaruh yang dihasilkan akibat suatu keadaan terhadap pemenuhan prestasi. Setiap kejadian belum tentu dapat dikatakan sebagai force majeure karena melihat seberapa besar faktor pengaruh yang mempengaruhi pemenuhan prestasi. Force majeure ditetapkan karena beberapa hal berdasarkan penyebabnya, sifatnya, subjeknya, dan ruang lingkupnya. Ketentuan yuridis terkait force majeure di Indonesia terdapat dalam KUH Perdata, Undang-Undang, dan yurisprudensi. Tulisan ini akan membahas praktik penetapan force majeure di Indonesia yang mengacu pada putusan hakim yang menetapkan suatu keadaan sebagai force majeure. Tujuan penulisan ini adalah untuk mengetahui analisis hakim dalam menolak atau menetapkan suatu keadaan memaksa. Metode penelitian yang digunakan dalam penulisan ini adalah yuridis normatif atau disebut juga penelitian hukum doktrinal. Penulis mengacu dan mengulas pada yurisprudensi yang membahas mengenai force majeure untuk mengetahui perbedaan analisis yang disebabkan karena perbedaan latar belakang perkara.  

N. Hodson, Lynne Townley, B. Earp

Focusing on the UK as a case study, this article argues that having the choice to enter into an international commercial surrogacy arrangement can be harmful, but that neither legalisation nor punitive restriction offers an adequate way to reduce this risk. Whether or not having certain options can harm individuals is central to current debates about the sale of organs. We assess and apply the arguments from that debate to international commercial surrogacy, showing that simply having the option to enter into a commercial surrogacy arrangement can harm potential vendors individually and collectively, particularly given its sexed dimension. We reject the argument that legalizing commercial surrogacy in the UK could reduce international exploitation. We also find that a punitive approach towards intended parents utilizing commercial rather than altruistic services is inappropriate. Drawing on challenges in the regulation of forced marriage and female genital cutting, we propose that international collaboration towards control of commercial surrogacy is a better strategy for preserving the delicate balancing of surrogate mothers' protection and children's welfare in UK law.

A. M. Shunaev

The corruption threat remains one of the key ones in the economy of the Russian Federation. The purpose of this work is to formulate recommendations on the neutralization of the corruption threat in the enterprise of the commercial sector of the economy. The author discusses the features of law enforcement practice in the Russian Federation and foreign experience in combating corporate fraud. The analysis of statistics on the amount of losses and the number of cases of abuse associated with the use of his ofcial position in a commercial organization is carried out. The developed model of corporate relationships allows identifying the sources of corruption and analyzing the effectiveness of the implementation of anti-corruption mechanisms. Practical recommendations on the implementation of anti-corruption mechanisms in enterprises have been proposed.

Cynthia W. Sharp

United States and European Union trademark laws have common foundations in the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property and also in the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS Agreement). As parties to these international agreements, both jurisdictions are obligated to adhere to certain fundamental parameters regarding trademark law and its enforcement. Despite these shared roots, a comparison of the European Court of Justice’s ruling in L’Oréal v. Bellure with the factually similar US Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals case Smith v. Chanel reveals a divergence between the US and the EU in these two jurisdictions’ construal of the interaction between trademark law and comparative advertising law. This variance reflects differences in the cultural and policy considerations behind these jurisdictions’ creation of the laws. Ultimately, however, it is due to fundamental differences in subsequent interpretations of those laws, as illustrated by diverging developments in the relevant case law. An understanding of these differences and developments can help clarify not only the reasons for their emergence, but may also help predict future directions the laws may take. This paper is divided into four main sections. Section 1 presents an overview of comparative advertising laws in the EU and the US, providing background for the case law discussion that follows. Section 2 delves further into these jurisdictions’ respective trademark and comparative advertising laws to reveal their interrelationship, the foundations upon which they are based, and the values they are intended to protect. Section 3 reviews the cases at issue in light of those laws and proposes that the divergence in laws between the EU and US stems primarily from opposing interpretations of anti-dilution laws. This divergence then triggers different interpretations regarding the way in which trademark law should intersect with comparative advertising law. Section 4 suggests that the Max Planck Institute’s Study on the Overall Functioning of the European Trade Mark System indicates that in the future, the EU laws are likely to align more closely with their US counterparts, if certain proposals made by the Institute are implemented by the European Commission.