The <i>Guanyin/Madonna and Child</i> painting, housed in the British Museum, exemplifies a distinct amalgamation of Catholic and Buddhist elements. This academic study explores the religious syncretism within this artwork, set against the backdrop of Sino-Western cultural dynamics. By integrating socio-religious analysis with iconographic methods, this research highlighted the interplay between the two religious traditions and the broader trends of cultural adaptation and religious amalgamation. It was proposed that the painting, on display at the British Museum, reflects not only the European depiction of the <i>Madonna of Humility</i> but also the Jesuit missionary influence and the clandestine religious practices of Chinese Christians during periods of persecution. This investigation provided new perspectives on the nuances of religious syncretism and the evolution of religious imagery within the contexts of cultural exchanges and missionary initiatives, augmenting scholarly discussions on the dynamics between religious beliefs and societal frameworks.
Michael Ende’s phantastic novels are rich in transcultural references to Asian mythologies. This paper begins by reconstructing these traces in his early children’s novels, Jim Button and Luke the Engine Driver and Momo, before focusing on The Neverending Story. In The Neverending Story, his opus magnum, Ende draws on Buddhist and Daoist themes to conceive of nothingness in a twofold sense: when written in capital letters, “The Nothing” (Das Nichts) is a threatening force that engulfs the fictive world of Phantasia (Fantásien). Conversely, when written in lowercase letters, “nothing” (nichts) represents the root of human consciousness and imagination, which holds the potential to resist the spread of The Nothing. Ende’s transcultural approach unleashes a critical force by exposing deep-seated pathologies linked to the encroachment of Nothingness, as manifested in the destructive impact of the modern rush toward acceleration, consumerism, and loss of meaning. Ende’s protagonists resist The Nothing with nothing, which is connected to the rediscovery of the human capacities to wish, to name, and to remember.
Social sciences and state - Asia (Asian studies only)
This paper examines Emperor Wu of the Liang dynasty (r. 502–549) and his efforts to reform the Buddhist <i>saṅgha</i> through the establishment of the bodhisattva precepts and the proclamation of the Prohibition of Alcohol and Meat. Grounded in Mahāyāna Buddhist ideals, Emperor Wu sought to integrate religious and political authority, positioning himself as the “Emperor-Bodhisattva”. By analyzing the <i>Ordination of the Bodhisattva Precepts for Monastics</i>, which encouraged monks to voluntarily pursue bodhisattva ideals, and the “Abstinence from Alcohol and Meat”, which redefined meat-eating as an act of killing and imposed strict dietary regulations on all monastics, this study explores his shift from promoting voluntary adherence to enforcing these ideals through state power. Emperor Wu’s reforms aimed to dismantle the hierarchical structure within the existing monastic community and establish a morally impeccable Mahāyāna Buddhist society. The analysis also addresses how Emperor Wu’s criticisms of the <i>śrāvaka</i> precepts became more explicit over time, leading to their marginalization in favor of Mahāyāna interpretations of monastic discipline. Ultimately, this paper demonstrates that the rise of Mahāyāna Buddhism as a newly redefined identity and Emperor Wu’s integration of religious and political authority were ideologically interlocked forces in the historical context of the Liang dynasty.
This paper reexamines the relationship between karma and causation in Theravāda Buddhism, with a focus on how karma causes external events attributed to agents. It argues against the deterministic notion that karma directly determines external phenomena, suggesting instead that external phenomena serve as necessary and sufficient conditions for the arising of karmic results. The causal relationship between the arising of contact with external phenomena and the arising of karmic results operates bi-directionally. Narratives that link present experiences to past lives should not be interpreted as implying that the past deterministically causes present events. Rather, they suggest that a moral agent’s feelings arise through present contact with conditions, regardless of the specific external phenomena involved. Drawing from Pāli Sutta-s, Abhidhammattha Sangaha, and Western perspectives on causation, this paper explores both the ontological and epistemological dimensions of karma. It highlights the phenomena of consciousness and emphasizes the roles of cetanā (intention) and vedanā (feeling) as central to the experience and understanding of karma. The study also critiques deterministic interpretations found in popular Thai Buddhism, where karma is often viewed as a fixed explanatory framework for misfortune. Instead, it recommends a naturalistic and experiential approach that emphasizes present awareness and moral responsibility.
Background: This article examines interaction between Buddhism and South Asian folklore exploring the influences of Buddhist traditions over culture, traditions, beliefs and practices of the local people specifically in northern India since the origin of Buddhism in the region. Objective: The objective of the paper is to focus the impacts of the Buddhist principles in various culture, custom and folklore in the South Asian region as the Dhamma gets expanded across South Asia and beyond. Methodology: Interdisciplinary methodology is employed while going through the research work, drawing from historical, textual, ethnographic, and sociological approaches to analyze the relationships between Buddhism, folklore, and contemporary South Asian society. Result: The paper depicts how the states were formed adopting the values of the Dhamma and how it brought a cultural integration becoming a popular religious practice in the region. There were people who preferred monastic life with Spiritual Practices and Meditations under the guidance of core Buddhist Philosophy whereas there were others, the householders, who were much more influenced by Buddhist rituals and local folklore. The role of Buddhist Monks and Nuns in facilitating the laities with ritual practices and Buddhist teachings is highlighted in the article. The article reflects the role of monastic folklorists in transforming folk traditions into an important part of Buddhist Practices by mixing up local deities, spirits and rituals into Buddhist cosmology. Jatakas and Avadanas stories of the Buddha's past lives are highlighted in the paper as the key sources of Teaching Buddhist ethics and doctrines to the common people. Conclusion: The paper investigates how Buddhism, in South Asia, got flourished with its modest engagement with various cultures and traditions in the region with significant influences over the folklore of the contemporary societies
Background: Virtue (sīla) is the fundamental foundation for achieving Nirvana in Buddhism. It is a set of moral conduct which is essential for the holistic life of an individual, a small unit of an ideal society. sīla also is a very essential factor for bringing transformation in the human societies. Practices of virtue (sīla) opens the door for Samadhi and Panna respectively. Objective: This article explores the method of mental purification by means of Virtue, the code of ethical behavior. Methodology: Expository or Descriptive approach is applied while writing this paper. Result: sīla includes refraining from killing, taking what is not given, sexual misconduct, lying, slandering, harsh speech, talking nonsense, covetousness, malevolence and wrong view, which are regarded as unwholesome deeds. A thorough observance of sīla leads one to peace, prosperity, social reputation and happiness in this life. It also helps a person to have a tranquil exit from the world. It is directed to bodily, mental and verbal purity. Conclusion: The benefits of practicing sīla, including ethical wellbeing, a favorable rebirth, and ultimate liberation, are discussed in the article. Besides, the article also emphasizes on sīla being safeguard to human being opining all golden gates leading one to spiritual progress or ultimate goal of human being i.e. enlightenment.
Background: The role of Emperor Ashoka is the main reason behind the position Buddhism has reached in the present world. He is one of the patrons of Buddhism. It was under his auspices that the third Buddhist council was held that Buddhism was able to establish itself in the position it has in the world today. Objective: The purpose of this study is to present a holistic assessment of how Emperor Ashoka was able to reach the present position by patronizing Buddhism. The article is presented in total three phases. Namely: To present a brief introduction to Emperor Ashoka; To assess and present the context of Emperor Ashoka's closeness with Buddhism; To evaluate Emperor Ashoka's contribution to Buddhism Methodology: This research employs a library-based analytical approach with a through review and critical analysis of associated historical texts and scholarly articles. The study explores the life and contributions of Emperor Ashoka, focusing on his patronage of Buddhism and its healthy impact on the global society. Result: Biography of Emperor Ashoka, his closeness and expansion of Buddhism has been explored in the article. Emperor Ashoka has been found to be able to reach the present position by patronizing Buddhism through the study. Conclusion: The Tripiṭaka was perfected by the third Buddhist council. He played an important role in propagating Buddhism in nine countries at that time, so this religion stands on a strong foundation in the world today. His son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra were among the Buddhist monks and nuns sent by Emperor Ashoka to the nine countries. Due to that continuity, the spread of Buddhism has been hindered in the world till today. The next successors are carrying on its continuity. As a result, a strong foundation of Buddhism is created.
The article examines the mythopoetic basis and the symbolic world of images in the historical novel Shiliyn Bogd (2015) by the Mongolian writer G. Mend-Ooyoo (1952). The mythopoetic and mytho-religious traditions of the Mongolian peoples, due to historical and cultural development, represent an established holistic worldview with a systemic picture of the world, with aesthetic and philosophical ideas about the profane and sacred, about the material and fabulous, rational and mystical, about the visible world and the other world, parallel invisible layer of being. The basis of the novel Mand-Ooyoo, as a complete work of art, is a mythopoetic pictorial dominant that expresses the author’s integral understanding of the essence of the surrounding reality. It is expressed in two interrelated and complementary aspects: epistemological and axiological. When analyzing the novel, it seems extremely important to focus on the second aspect because it is the system of artistic values and its role in creating the mythopoetic basis and the symbolic world of images that are dominant.
The article deals with the genesis, semantics, and functions of the dragon image in Japanese culture. The relevance of the study is due to the increased attention of researchers to the basic values of local cultures, issues of symbolism, inextricably linked to the problems of national self-identification. The methodological basis of the study is the structural-semiotic approach, which was used to analyze the value content of the dragon image, the descriptive-analytical method, and the method of cognitive interpretation of the semantics of linguistic means verbalizing the dragon image in the Japanese language. In contrast to the Western tradition, in the culture of the peoples of East Asia, a dragon is a revered and significant symbol of power, strength, and authority. Stories about dragons are found in ancient texts of both Hinduism and Buddhism. It is established that the formation and evolution of the dragon cult in Japan was influenced by the mythical Chinese dragons, Indian Naga snakes, and the belief in dragons as deities of the water element. The author examines the genesis and evolution of the dragon image in different historical epochs, the influence of cultural-historical, natural, and religious factors on its transformation. It is shown that, in medieval Japan, the dragon was considered the protector of Buddhism, personifying strength, wisdom, prosperity, good luck, and images of these mythical creatures became an organic element of Buddhist culture. Particular attention is paid to the analysis of the image of the dragon as a sign of the Chinese zodiacal calendar, the representations of dragons in Japanese mythology, fairy tales and legends, in Hitachi-Fudoki, Kojiki, Nihon shoki. In the mythological picture of the world of the Japanese, the dragon is ambivalent and has both positive and negative features. It is revealed that the image of the dragon occupies an important place in Japanese traditional culture, painting, architecture, arts and crafts, calendar holidays, is widely represented in proverbs and sayings, word combinations and idioms. The reference to Japanese phraseology allowed to expand the base of the study and to reveal the totality of ideas about the dragon in the worldview of native speakers of the Japanese language. The author concludes that, nowadays, the image of the dragon in Japan has lost its sacral significance and is mainly used as tribute to tradition.
This article analyzes the norms of behavior in the Russian public service and Islam. A comparative and structural study of the behaviors typical of public officials and Muslims was carried out. It was proposed to revise the legal provisions on international and foreign economic relations and personal qualities. The results obtained show that public officials can adhere to any faith (Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, etc.), as all religions promote fundamental human values and encourage behaviors that are advantageous for society. It was found that the social norms of behavior are universal regardless of legal system, legal status, or social affiliation. All citizens, whether in public service or the Islamic community, must follow these norms because they aim to uphold justice and equality. The importance of fostering cooperation between Russia, through the Republic of Tatarstan, and the Muslim world was emphasized.
History of scholarship and learning. The humanities
It has been twenty years since Jonathan S. Walters sought to dislodge the ingrained understanding of karma as a purely individual phenomenon. Since then, interesting work has been done on this issue, but less than one might hope and much of it siloed, addressing either texts or ethnography, either this region or that one. One of the most exciting aspects of a recent symposium on lived karma was the opportunity to explore these issues with scholars of widely varied expertise. One theme that emerged is what I will term “interpersonal karma.” Across the Buddhist world, we find not only that our relationships are constituted by karmic affinities, but also that in many contexts those relationships are seen as the media through which karma unfolds. These understandings not only provide frameworks for interpreting relationships but underwrite ritual technologies through which people can form, maintain, or disperse these affinities.
The Song dynasty (960–1279) was the peak of <i>fengshui</i> development in China. During this period, <i>fengshui</i> books proliferated, and geomantic techniques spread rapidly. Thus, the population was generally inclined to consider the influence of architecture on the fate of individuals or families from a <i>fengshui</i> perspective. In addition to writing books on <i>fengshui</i>, many Buddhist monks and Daoist masters also practiced the location selection and spatial planning of Buddhist and Daoist temples, houses, and tombs. This paper first collates the <i>fengshui</i> books written by Buddhist monks and Daoists during the Song dynasty and then analyzes their spatial planning concepts according to the geomancy theory. Secondly, taking into account specific cases of Buddhist and Daoist temples, garden buildings, and residential tombs, it elaborates on the reasons and purposes behind the Buddhist monks’ and Daoists’ use of the geomancy theory. Lastly, the changes in the function of site selection in the urban landscape reflect the interaction between Buddhism, Daoism, and <i>fengshui</i> during the Song dynasty. An awareness of the historical origins of religious tradition is helpful in our understanding of <i>fengshui</i> architectural heritage in general.
In this research, I aimed to recognize the historical meaning of installing the medical education center, ‘Uihak 醫學’, during the Silla 新羅 dynasty. ‘Uihak’ was installed in 692, in the first year of King Hyoso 孝昭 ’s rule. ‘Uihak’ was founded by using various Chinese medical classics as its textbooks for medical education, such as the Classic of Plain Questions 素問經.The wooden prescriptions excavated from Anapji 雁鴨池, which is thought to have been created in the middle of the 8th century, and the Chinese medical book Prescriptions for Universal Benefit 廣利方, which the envoy of Silla tried to acquire in 803, reflect the idea on medicine during that period in Silla. By this time, the field of medicine began to develop the idea to discern the locations and mechanism of disease patterns by centering on the viscera and bowels 臟腑 while making use of the herbal prescriptions based on various drugs. This means that clinical medicine founded upon the medical education achieved in ‘Uihak’ was being realized in the medical fields as well. According to the Chronicles of the Three States 三國史記, for the illness of Queen Sunduk 善德 in 636, medicine, praying, and the method of esoteric Buddhism 密敎 was tried out as a means of her cure. Comparatively, for the treatment of the first rank Chunggong 忠公 in 822, the Kingdom’s representative doctor 國 醫 with professional medical knowledge was sought out to fine a cure. The analyses of the human disease, diagnosis, treatment method, etc., given by the kingdom’s representative doctor were identical to those recommended in the medical textbooks used in ‘Uihak’. As such, we can posit that his academic background was ‘Uihak’ and the education given there.The Classic of Materia Medica 本草經, which was also used in ‘Uihak’, was a book professionally centered on the drug branch of medicine. The Classic of Materia Medica is a terminology referring to various books on drugs, including the Shennong’s Classic of Materia Medica 神農本草經, the Variorum of the Classic of Materia Medica 本草經集注, the Newly Revised Materia Medica 新修本草, etc. Thus, we cannot specify what the classic of Materia Medica actually taught, based on only its terminology. However, based on the wooden prescriptions excavated from Anapji, and from the terminology of drugs recorded in the drug trading document Purchase List for Silla goods 買新羅物解 preserved in Shosoin 正倉院 of Japan, we can hypothesize that in the middle of the 8th century, the Newly Revised Materia Medica was indeed being circulated. Based on these evidences, we can also hypothesize that Silla was part of the network of drug trading that encompassed the entire region of Asia.After unifying the Korean peninsula, the Kingdom of Silla actively adopted the medical educational system of Tang 唐 China. By using the obtained medical knowledge, Silla cured illnesses and used the medical knowledge on various drugs recorded in the Newly Revised Materia Medica to pursue trade with China, Japan, and other countries. Through the installation of ‘Uihak’, the same medicine has now begun to be officially used in East Asia, including Silla.
This paper examines how the Buddhist revival, the Chan revival, and recent popularity of transnational meditation practices have facilitated Chinese women practicing Buddhist meditation in contemporary China. With the influence of the opening of China and growing transnational networks, there has been an increasing number of Han Chinese monastics and lay people practicing transnational meditation, such as <i>samādhi</i>, <i>vipassanā</i> and mindfulness, in the past two decades. Despite the restriction of accessing Chan halls at monasteries, some Chinese nuns and laywomen have traveled to learn meditation in different parts of China, and international meditation centers in Southeast Asia to study with yogis from all over the world. Surprisingly some returned female travelers have taken significant roles in organizing meditation retreats, and establishing meditation centers and meditation halls. Through examining some ethnographic cases of Chinese nuns and laywomen, this paper argues that the transnational meditation movement has an impact not only on gender equality, especially concerning Chinese women practicing meditation, but also on the development of contemporary Chinese Buddhism. The significant role of Chinese female meditators in promoting Buddhist meditation can reflect a trend of re-positioning the Chan School in contemporary China.
Shamanism is a system composed of various elements of culture and belief,
created by people to understand life and come to grips with what is happening
around them. It has an elaborate structure in terms of existing in well-rounded
communities. It has various features that have different aspects compared to
the different times and conditions of the society. It also adopts local beliefs
and the beliefs of the surrounding tribes. Shamanism allows everyone to have
a religious concept and to have his or her own God or Gods. The technique
of trance, also called «ecstasy», is an essential part. It is based on the worship
of magic, curses, divination, polytheism, ancestral spirits and nature beings.
Those who practice and teach shamanism are called Kam/Shaman. To some
they are magicians, witch doctors, illusionists and to others they are oracles,
doctors, sages, philosophers, pagan priests, fortunetellers and storytellers.
Attempts have been made to either control or abolish shamanism and shamans
because many of their characteristics are in opposition to other belief systems
such as Confucianism, Buddhism, Islam, Christianity and communist ideology.
In addition, the economic suffering caused by the constant blood sacrifices of
the society who live on herding led to the emergence of Burhanism among the
Altaians, another factor that weakened shamanism from within. Over time,
shamanism acquired a status that the oppression of the shamans who led their
communities sought to end. Despite all this, shamanism resisted the pressure
and disguised itself when necessary. It always managed to update itself and has
survived with some changes until today.
This essay explores the subtle but key influence of Buddhist ideas in Spike Jonze’s highly successful 2013 film Her, which reflects the currents of disembedded Buddhism woven through ostensibly non-Buddhist cultural spaces and texts, engaging with contemporary social concerns. In Her they manifest most surprisingly in the character of Samantha, an artificially-intelligent consciousness that transcends the limitations of ego-based thought. Like the Buddha, Samantha has capacities that extend beyond the reach of ordinary humans, and by imagining these extraordinary powers of thought we are provided a glimpse of an absolute reality beyond our experience of the everyday. In this sense Her’s techno-global cosmology parallels miraculous aspects of the Buddha that are embedded in premodern cosmologies.
This article attempts to provide a comparative analysis of the development of Buddhism in Mongolia and Russia over the last 20 years. The paper argues that the processes of restoration of the Buddhist sangha (Pali/Sanskrit ‘assembly, association’, i.e. monastic/religious community) in these countries can hardly be referred to as ‘revival’. It is not only about restoration of monasteries and temples and return to the situation of the early 20th century. The dramatic events of the past century, processes of modernization and secularization have had essential impacts on the societies so that the very conditions for the functioning of the sangha have changed radically. During the socialist era, Buddhism was reinterpreted in the ethnic, national and cultural contexts; many functions (education, medicine, etc.) once performed by the sangha passed to secular institutions. Currently, local Buddhist communities are in search for new ways of adapting to the changed conditions. The main contradiction lies in the fact that, on the one hand, Russia and Mongolia’s sanghas depend on the material, ideological and educational support of the Tibetan sangha; but at the same time, they strive for more independence. They try to strengthen their ethnic and national sentiments and to distance themselves from the Tibetan infl uence. The 14th Dalai Lama still remains the main authority who recognizes new reincarnations and most believers consider him to be their teacher. However, not all of the present-day Mongolian and Russian Buddhist leaders are happy with it. In Mongolia there is a community of Dorje Shugden followers who disagree with the Dalai Lama’s ban on the worship of this deity. They insist that it is an exclusively Mongolian matter and the Tibetans should not interfere with it. In Russia, the Buryat Khambo Lama Damba Ayusheev insists that there is a Buryat form of Buddhism evolved independently from the Tibet tradition. Local communities in Russia and Mongolia are formed around large monasteries, Dharma centers and some famous teachers. In Mongolia, the role of the reincarnations is stronger than there in Russia. And after the enthronization of the next Jetsundamba Khutuktu positions of Buddhism in Mongolia will become much stronger. In Russia, the search for independence and the national form of Buddhism is more characteristic to Buryatia, while the Kalmyk sangha follows the Dalai Lama. One of the key differences between the two countries is that in Russia lay Buddhist organizations play a much larger role. The Karma Kagyu Diamond Way, Foundation for the Preservation of Mahayana Tradition, and Dzogchen community are the widest spread and active among them. The Gelug school dominates in Mongolia and in the traditionally Buddhists regions of Russia; however, in some Russia’s territories other schools of Buddhism are represented as well.
History (General), Oriental languages and literatures
The article is devoted to the study of the early connections of the Manchu rulers with the highest leadership of Tibetan Buddhism. Probably, the countdown should be conducted from the 1620s, when the Manchus intensified their interaction with the Mongolian peoples (Chakhars), where the Tibetan lamas already had strong positions. Further development of Buddhism among the Manchus happened due to the important political events: the coming of the Dalai Lama to power in Tibet in 1642, and the seizure of Beijing by a new Qing dynasty in 1644. For the new rulers of China, lamas had been of the fundamental importance, because, thanks to their support, the Manchus have had the right to claim succession of the government (the mandate of Heaven) from the Mongol Yuan dynasty, and at the same time, they were able to appease the Mongols. Apparently, after a visit to Beijing by the Dalai Lama in 1652, a new phase of the relationship between emperors and lamas began, which brought the Qing China to clashes with the Dzhungar Oirats.
The reaction to multiple religious belonging has been fraught with anxiety in the monotheistic traditions. Nevertheless, increasing numbers of people report belonging to multiple religions. I propose that it is most useful to think of multiple religious belonging not so much as an expression of choice, but just the opposite. Multiple religious belonging is best explained as the ontological condition of two or more religious traditions constituting the self, so that the self’s possibilities are constrained by those religions. Furthermore, I argue that multiple religious belonging per se does not threaten traditional religious communities. Threats are by definition future possibilities, and ontologically speaking, we always already belong to multiple religions. We belong to multiple religions because every religious tradition is an amalgam of earlier distinct traditions. There is nothing new about multiple religious belonging. It is nearly unremarkable. Two philosophers in particular-one a twentieth-century German phenomenologist, the other a second-century Indian Buddhist-have given particularly careful examination of the phenomenon of belonging. Hans-Georg Gadamer’s concept of Wirkungsgeschichte [history of effects] and Nāgārjuna’s teaching of śūnyatā [emptiness] both imply that multiple religious belonging is the ontological condition of all human beings, and that producing any monolithic religious identity requires significant mental gymnastics.