Hasil untuk "Slavic languages. Baltic languages. Albanian languages"

R. Bouckaert, P. Lemey, M. Dunn et al.

Elena I. Pogorelskaia, Alexandre F. Stroev

The archival documents from the collections of the National Library of France (BnF), the Russian State Archive of Literature and Art (RGALI), and the department of manuscript collections of the V.I. Dahl State Museum of the History of Russian Literature (ORF GLM) make significant additions and clarifications to Babel’s biography during his two long stays in France, expand our understanding of his Paris contacts are published for the first time. These are his letters of 1928 and 1932–1933 addressed to P.P. Suvchinsky, V.S. Pozner and the French writer, translator and journalist Nino Frank, as well as two letters to Suvchinsky of 1928 from the artist N.M. Davydova, in which Babel is mentioned, and a fragment of correspondence between Suvchinsky and A.M. Remizov of the early 1950s, associated with the unfulfilled project of Babel’s book. The publication concludes with a translation into Russian of Babel’s interview with the newspaper Les Nouvelles littéraires, artistiques et scientifiques in May 1928. The introductory article restores the biographical and political contexts of the published correspondence, talks about Babel’s relations with Russian emigrants, including Eurasians, and with Soviet diplomats, about his meeting with Remizov and, possibly, with N.A. Berdyaev.

Federico Bruzzone, Walter Cazzola, Luca Favalli

Developing editing support for $L$ languages in $E$ editors is complex and time-consuming. Some languages do not provide dedicated editors, while others offer a single native editor. The $\textit{language server protocol}$ (LSP) reduces the language-editor combinations $L \times E$ to $L + E$, where a single language server communicates with editors via LSP plugins. However, overlapping implementations of linguistic components remain an issue. Existing language workbenches struggle with modularity, reusability, and leveraging type systems for language server generation. In this work, we propose: (i) Typelang, a family of domain-specific languages for modular, composable, and reusable type system implementation, (ii) a modular language server generation process, producing servers for languages built in a modular workbench, (iii) the variant-oriented programming paradigm and a cross-artifact coordination layer to manage interdependent software variants, and (iv) an LSP plugin generator, reducing $E$ to $1$ by automating plugin creation for multiple editors. To simplify editing support for language families, each language artifact integrates its own Typelang variant, used to generate language servers. This reduces combinations to $T \times 1$, where $T = L$ represents the number of type systems. Further reuse of language artifacts across languages lowers this to $N \times 1$, where $N << T$, representing unique type systems. We implement Typelang in Neverlang, generating language servers for each artifact and LSP plugins for three editors. Empirical evaluation shows a 93.48% reduction in characters needed for type system implementation and 100% automation of LSP plugin generation, significantly lowering effort for editing support in language families, especially when artifacts are reused.

Sergey Goncharov, Stefan Milius, Lutz Schröder et al.

Reasoning about program equivalence in imperative languages is notoriously challenging, as the presence of states (in the form of variable stores) fundamentally increases the observational power of program terms. The key desideratum for any notion of equivalence is compositionality, guaranteeing that subprograms can be safely replaced by equivalent subprograms regardless of the context. To facilitate compositionality proofs and avoid boilerplate work, one would hope to employ the abstract bialgebraic methods provided by Turi and Plotkin's powerful theory of mathematical operational semantics (a.k.a. abstract GSOS) or its recent extension by Goncharov et al. to higher-order languages. However, multiple attempts to apply abstract GSOS to stateful languages have thus failed. We propose a novel approach to the operational semantics of stateful languages based on the formal distinction between readers (terms that expect an initial input store before being executed), and writers (running terms that have already been provided with a store). In contrast to earlier work, this style of semantics is fully compatible with abstract GSOS, and we can thus leverage the existing theory to obtain coinductive reasoning techniques. We demonstrate that our approach generates non-trivial compositionality results for stateful languages with first-order and higher-order store and that it flexibly applies to program equivalences at different levels of granularity, such as trace, cost, and natural equivalence.

Trifunović, Aleksandar

The use of the particle po- with adjectives (and also adverbs) in either positive or comparative or even superlative form is fairly well present in Slavic languages. In Slovak for example, it is mostly used with terms for colours, carrying the meaning ʽlessʼ or ʽsomewhatʼ e.g. pobelavý ʽwhitish, somewhat whiteʼ ʽblackish, somewhat blackʼ, while in Czech it can either modify the meaning similar to that in Slovak e.g. pobělavý ʽwhitish, somewhat whiteʼ, or can be used with a comparative degree, carrying the meaning ʽless, slightly lessʼ e.g. postarší člověk ʽslightly less old manʼ. On the other hand, in Russian, it carries the meaning »more, even, slightly more, even more«, e.g. поинтереснее ʽeven more interestingʼ, постарша ʽeven olderʼ. At the very south of the Slavic language territory, i.e. in the Macedonian and Bulgarian languages, the use of the particle po- is the only mean of forming comparative degree of adjectives.   In the Shtokavian dialects, the usage of the particle po- with adjectives consists of the whole spectrum of meaning. In some dialects it can be used with the positive degree e.g. povisok ʽpretty highʼ, the comparative degree e.g. poviši ʽa bit higher / a bit less highʼ - so the meaning can be the same as in Czech or Russian, depending on the dialect - and even superlative degree of an adjective ponajviši ʽhighest of the highestʼ. And on the other hand, there are dialects in which this is the only way of forming the comparative degree of adjectives – the same as in Macedonian and Bulgarian.   In this article, all the variants of the usage of the particle po- in the Shtokavian dialects are presented, with the idea to establish the border between dialects that use this particle and those which do not use it. A substantial effort was put in order to find if there is any parallel between the shift from synthetic type of comparison to the analytic one in these dialects. This in return could shed a light in the further research of the same phenomenon in Bulgarian and Macedonian languages.

Lihan Xie, Zhicheng Hui, Qinxiang Cao

Artificial intelligence assisted mathematical proof has become a highly focused area nowadays. One key problem in this field is to generate formal mathematical proofs from natural language proofs. Due to historical reasons, the formal proof languages adopted by traditional theorem provers were not intended to represent natural language proofs. Therefore, they are not well-suited for the aforementioned tasks and proof-checking work for educational purposes. In this paper, we design a proof language and its corresponding abstract syntax tree and implement a proof checking tool for it. This language can be easily converted from natural language, thus providing a rich corpus of formal proof. Additionally, it supports the handling of issues in informal proofs through static analysis, and enhances the expressive power of the language by introducing the structure of partial proofs. This design combines the expressiveness of natural language and the accuracy of formal language, resulting in an improved mathematical proof language.

Guilherme Duarte, Nelma Moreira, Luca Prigioniero et al.

In this paper, we consider block languages, namely sets of words having the same length, and we propose a new representation for these languages. In particular, given an alphabet of size $k$ and a length $\ell$, a block language can be represented by a bitmap of length $k^\ell$, where each bit indicates whether the corresponding word, according to the lexicographical order, belongs, or not, to the language (bit equal to 1 or 0, respectively). First, we show how to convert bitmaps into deterministic and nondeterministic finite automata, and we prove that the machines are minimal. Then, we give an analysis of the maximum number of states sufficient to accept every block language in the deterministic and nondeterministic case. Finally, we study the deterministic and nondeterministic state complexity of several operations on these languages. Being a subclass of finite languages, the upper bounds of operational state complexity known for finite languages apply for block languages as well. However, in several cases, smaller values were found.

Szilárd Zsolt Fazekas, Tore Koß, Florin Manea et al.

In this paper, we study a series of algorithmic problems related to the subsequences occurring in the strings of a given language, under the assumption that this language is succinctly represented by a grammar generating it, or an automaton accepting it. In particular, we focus on the following problems: Given a string $w$ and a language $L$, does there exist a word of $L$ which has $w$ as subsequence? Do all words of $L$ have $w$ as a subsequence? Given an integer $k$ alongside $L$, does there exist a word of $L$ which has all strings of length $k$, over the alphabet of $L$, as subsequences? Do all words of $L$ have all strings of length $k$ as subsequences? For the last two problems, efficient algorithms were already presented in [Adamson et al., ISAAC 2023] for the case when $L$ is a regular language, and efficient solutions can be easily obtained for the first two problems. We extend that work as follows: we give sufficient conditions on the class of input-languages, under which these problems are decidable; we provide efficient algorithms for all these problems in the case when the input language is context-free; we show that all problems are undecidable for context-sensitive languages. Finally, we provide a series of initial results related to a class of languages that strictly includes the regular languages and is strictly included in the class of context-sensitive languages, but is incomparable to the of class context-free languages; these results deviate significantly from those reported for language-classes from the Chomsky hierarchy.

U. Slabin

Conducting research in science education, the authors of the Journal of Baltic Science Education surely remember eponyms in school subjects and university courses. Eponym is a term that includes the name of the person, who discovered a species (biology), explored a glacier (geography), synthesized a compound (chemistry), formulated a law (physics), invented a device (engineering), proved a theorem (mathematics), treated or suffered a disease (medicine), etc. Most chemists and chemistry teachers know, e.g., such eponyms as Avogadro number, Wurtz reaction, Mendeleev table, Liebig condenser, Claisen adapter, Berthollet salt, asf. Eponyms are a relatively new domain of scientific terminology: they first appeared in the 19th century, when the development of science and technology grew rapidly, and scientists decided to honor brilliant colleagues, attaching their names to the discoveries they made. Before this, scientists used words from national and Latin languages to name discovered phenomena.

Pranaydeep Singh, Aaron Maladry, Els Lefever

This paper investigates whether adding data of typologically closer languages improves the performance of transformer-based models for three different downstream tasks, namely Part-of-Speech tagging, Named Entity Recognition, and Sentiment Analysis, compared to a monolingual and plain multilingual language model. For the presented pilot study, we performed experiments for the use case of Slovene, a low(er)-resourced language belonging to the Slavic language family. The experiments were carried out in a controlled setting, where a monolingual model for Slovene was compared to combined language models containing Slovene, trained with the same amount of Slovene data. The experimental results show that adding typologically closer languages indeed improves the performance of the Slovene language model, and even succeeds in outperforming the large multilingual XLM-RoBERTa model for NER and PoS-tagging. We also reveal that, contrary to intuition, distantly or unrelated languages also combine admirably with Slovene, often out-performing XLM-R as well. All the bilingual models used in the experiments are publicly available at https://github.com/pranaydeeps/BLAIR

Olga A. Dekhanova

The novel Crime and Punishment, created by Dostoevsky in the era of liberal reforms and scientific discoveries, is an encyclopedia of public life in Russia in the 60s of the 19th century. It was the time of the most furious polemics around the numerous writings and articles of European and, above all, German philosophers and scientists. However, in most cases, scientific discoveries were interpreted very superficially, introducing an exclusively atheistic interpretation of them into the minds of people, creating a confrontation between science and religion. In the novel Crime and Punishment Dostoevsky expresses his position in this dispute, using the book by Henry Lewes Physiology of Common Life as an unspoken interlocutor. The reference to Lewes’ book can be traced throughout the novel. First of all, Dostoevsky projects the symptoms of chronic starvation described by Lewes onto the mental and spiritual state of Raskolnikov. However, speaking about the impact of hunger on human consciousness, Lewes meant the release of primitive instincts. And any crime in this case can be considered as an external or internal influence of the physiological reactions of the organism. Agreeing with Lewes regarding the existence of a connection between the physical and mental state of a person, Dostoevsky categorically argues that the “primitive instinct” can and should not be the need for crime, but the law of morality. Dostoevsky was not worried about scientific progress as such, but about questions of scientific ethics, the widespread, violent and senseless transfer of the laws of organic nature to the field of social and religious-moral relations. Sonya’s religious consciousness, her natural mind, capable of comprehending the scientific realities of the new world, is one of the possibilities for the coexistence of science and religion, this is what Dostoevsky aspired to. These and some other issues are discussed in detail in this article.

T. G. Rabenko, Ts. S.-B. Nurzet

The results of a comparative analysis of the everyday semantics of the bionym Orel and Ezir [Eagle] in the Russian and Tuvan languages are presented. The relevance of the study is determined by its incorporation into the problems of modern ethnoconceptology in that part of it that is associated with the description of everyday semantics in the languages of different ethnic groups. The scientific novelty of the study is due to the use of methodological techniques that allow us to trace the participation of different layers of semantics in the conceptualization of a word and to reveal the significance of various factors in this process (the objective properties of the referent and the national and cultural characteristics of the informants). The ambivalent perception of the eagle in Russian and Tuvan linguistic cultures has been established. On the one hand, it is a strong, majestic bird, symbolically embodying all male virtues (strength, becoming, pride), enjoying special reverence and elected as a state symbol. On the other hand, the eagle is associated with a bird of prey and danger. The mythological perception of the eagle as a royal bird, acting as an intermediary between Heaven and Earth, is more clearly seen in the Tuvan linguistic culture. In the ordinary view of a Tuvan native speaker, the eagle is embodied as a “dancing” bird, the imitation of the flight of which is filled with ethnocultural meaning and is associated with ethnocultural identification.

K. Chung

Adjara, located in southwestern Georgia of Transcaucasia, was the only autonomous organization of the Soviet Union founded in accordance with religion, not ethnicity. Initially, the Soviet government considered Adjarians as an ethnic group separate from Georgians, based on differences in religion, but in accordance with the atheistic policy of non-recognition of religion, the 1939 census began to refer to Adjarians simply as “Georgian Muslims” or “Muslim Georgians”. However, despite this term, the name “Adjarians” is still widely used today. Georgia, along with Ukraine and the 3 Baltic states, is the most desoviet and the most hostile towards Russia of the 14 young independent states in the post-Soviet space, waged wars with Russia over Abkhazia and South Ossetia after the collapse of the Soviet Union. Currently, the Abkhazians and Ossetians form the de facto independent Republic of Abkhazia and the Republic of South Ossetia and enjoy the support of Russia, and further consider the possibility of further accession to the Russian Federation. On the contrary, Adjara, the territory of Adjarians, seemed to have received the status of an independent state in 1991-2004, when Aslan Abashidze became the head of state, formed an independent autonomous organization and established autocratic rule, but after the so-called ‘Rose Revolution’ President Mikheil Saakashvili came to power in Georgia, and on May 6, 2004, Abashidze fled to Russia, was absorbed into Georgia without an armed conflict. In this study, the researcher described the unique historical process and identity of Adjara and Adjara, and also considered the features of Adjara, which entered Georgia without conflict, unlike Abkhazia and South Ossetia, which became practically independent in the process of bloody confrontation that arose around the process of building a Georgian unified national state in Georgia after the collapse of the Soviet Union. At that time, the indigenous population of Adjara, the Ajrans and their native language, respectively, the Georgian people, and the Georgian language, and this perception is widespread. In addition, although Adjara had the status of an autonomous republic in Georgia, Turkey is developing a policy of Turkization and Islamization because it wanted to regain its own territory, and that the more Russia continued to lose influence in Transcaucasia and the worse relations between Russia and Georgia became, the more Turkey would replace Russia. As a result, the situation of Adjarian-Russian bilingualism, which appeared after the annexation of Adjara to Russia in 1878, disappeared, and Georgian-Turkish bilingualism can be predicted.

A. Yu. Meshchansky, L. A. Savelova

The issue of understanding the theme of the Great Patriotic War (1941—1945) by modern Russian playwrights is raised in the article. The novelty of the study is due to the appeal to little-studied plays by the authors of the 21st century. The purpose of the article is to trace the specifics of the author’s individual variants of the artistic representation of the war theme on the material of the works of modern times and to give an idea of the discursive potential of this theme for modern dramaturgy. The evidence base is the analysis of three works written by different playwrights, which present the perception and living of military events and their consequences by a woman, a man and a child. These are the plays “Frontovichka” by A. Baturina, “Seven Trophies of Private Shapkin” by V. Tkachev and “Cannibal” by N. Vorobieva and K. Zhurenkov. The results of the analysis allow us to draw a parallel between eras and show that playwrights, through the prism of war, turn not so much to the past, but to the pressing problems of the present and future. It is concluded that this indicates the key nature of the military theme for modern Russian literature and its enduring significance both for each individual and for humanity as a whole.

Rūta Šlapkauskaitė

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Timothy L Staples

Change in language use is driven by cultural forces; it is unclear whether that extends to programming languages. They are designed to be used by humans, but interaction with computer hardware rather than a human audience may limit opportunities for evolution of the lexicon of used terms. I tested this in R, an open source, mature and commonly used programming language for statistical computing. In corpus of 360,321 GitHub repositories published between 2014 and 2021, I extracted 168,857,044 function calls to act as n-grams of the R language. Over the eight-year period, R rapidly diversified and underwent substantial lexical change, driven by increasing popularity of the tidyverse collection of community packages. My results provide evidence that users can influence the evolution of programming languages, with patterns that match those observed in natural languages and reflect genetic evolution. R's evolution may have been driven by increased analytic complexity, driving new users to R, creating both selective pressure for an alternate lexicon and accompanying advective change. The speed and magnitude of this change may have flow-on consequences for the readability and continuity of analytic and scientific inquiries codified in R and similar languages.

Victor Yodaiken

The C programming language was developed in the 1970s as a fairly unconventional systems and operating systems development tool, but has, through the course of the ISO Standards process, added many attributes of more conventional programming languages and become less suitable for operating systems development. Operating system programming continues to be done in non-ISO dialects of C. The differences provide a glimpse of operating system requirements for programming languages.

Jingmei Hu, Eric Lu, David A. Holland et al.

The end of Moore's Law has ushered in a diversity of hardware not seen in decades. Operating system (and system software) portability is accordingly becoming increasingly critical. Simultaneously, there has been tremendous progress in program synthesis. We set out to explore the feasibility of using modern program synthesis to generate the machine-dependent parts of an operating system. Our ultimate goal is to generate new ports automatically from descriptions of new machines. One of the issues involved is writing specifications, both for machine-dependent operating system functionality and for instruction set architectures. We designed two domain-specific languages: Alewife for machine-independent specifications of machine-dependent operating system functionality and Cassiopea for describing instruction set architecture semantics. Automated porting also requires an implementation. We developed a toolchain that, given an Alewife specification and a Cassiopea machine description, specializes the machine-independent specification to the target instruction set architecture and synthesizes an implementation in assembly language with a customized symbolic execution engine. Using this approach, we demonstrate successful synthesis of a total of 140 OS components from two pre-existing OSes for four real hardware platforms. We also developed several optimization methods for OS-related assembly synthesis to improve scalability. The effectiveness of our languages and ability to synthesize code for all 140 specifications is evidence of the feasibility of program synthesis for machine-dependent OS code. However, many research challenges remain; we also discuss the benefits and limitations of our synthesis-based approach to automated OS porting.

Daniel Patterson, Noble Mushtak, Andrew Wagner et al.

Programs are rarely implemented in a single language, and thus questions of type soundness should address not only the semantics of a single language, but how it interacts with others. Even between type-safe languages, disparate features frustrate interoperability, as invariants from one language can easily be violated in the other. In their seminal 2007 paper, Matthews and Findler proposed a multi-language construction that augments the interoperating languages with a pair of boundaries that allow code from one language to be embedded in the other. While the technique has been widely applied, their syntactic source-level interoperability doesn't reflect practical implementations, where behavior of interaction is defined after compilation to a common target, and any safety must be ensured by target invariants or inserted target-level "glue code." In this paper, we present a framework for the design and verification of sound language interoperability that follows an interoperation-after-compilation strategy. Language designers specify what data can be converted between types of the languages via a relation $τ_A \sim τ_B$ and specify target glue code implementing conversions. Then, by giving a semantic model of source types as sets of target terms, we can establish soundness of conversions: i.e., whenever $τ_A \sim τ_B$, the corresponding pair of conversions convert target terms that behave as $τ_A$ to target terms that behave as $τ_B$, and vice versa. We can then prove semantic type soundness for the entire system. We illustrate our framework via a series of case studies that demonstrate how our semantic interoperation-after-compilation approach allows us both to account for complex differences in language semantics and make efficiency trade-offs based on particularities of compilers or targets.

Alex Reinking, Gilbert Louis Bernstein, Jonathan Ragan-Kelley

We present the first formalization and metatheory of language soundness for a user-schedulable language, the widely used array processing language Halide. User-schedulable languages strike a balance between abstraction and control in high-performance computing by separating the specification of what a program should compute from a schedule for how to compute it. In the process, they make a novel language soundness claim: the result of a program should always be the same, regardless of how it is scheduled. This soundness guarantee is tricky to provide in the presence of schedules that introduce redundant recomputation and computation on uninitialized data, rather than simply reordering statements. In addition, Halide ensures memory safety through a compile-time bounds inference engine that determines safe sizes for every buffer and loop in the generated code, presenting a novel challenge: formalizing and analyzing a language specification that depends on the results of unreliable program synthesis algorithms. Our formalization has revealed flaws and led to improvements in the practical Halide system, and we believe it provides a foundation for the design of new languages and tools that apply programmer-controlled scheduling to other domains.