Background. Domestic diplomacy and international legal science played a leading role in the formation of international humanitarian law. Russia initiated major projects in the field of international law before the world wars: two Hague Peace Conferences were held in 1899 and 1907. However, such a significant page of Russian history in the development of international law received insufficient attention from domestic and foreign researchers, the latter actively study the role of the United States, Great Britain, France and other countries in the development of international humanitarian law. In this regard, the study of the content and results of the Second Peace Conference and its historical significance seems relevant and scientifically significant. The work aims to determine the main directions and achievements of the Hague Peace Conference of 1907 in terms of developing rules for waging armed conflicts, determining the importance of the adopted documents and the results of the conference for the development of international law. Materials and methods. The objectives are achieved by analyzing the official materials of the Hague Peace Conference of 1907, official acts of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Empire, assessments of the conference's achievements given by its participants, international treaties (the Hague Conventions and Declarations of 1907), and scientific literature. Results. The work analyzes the content of the work of the Second Hague Peace Conference on the codification of the laws and customs of warfare, the role of the Russian delegation in achieving the goals, and the significance of its work for the dynamic development of international humanitarian law. Conclusions. The study of the prerequisites for holding the conference, the content of the work, and historical significance of the Hague Forum allows us to conclude that Russian diplomacy and the Russian state played a special role in terms of codifying the laws and customs of warfare and dynamic development of international humanitarian law.
The article presents two trends in stuccowork, both based on models from France. One dates back to the early days of a renewal in the use of stucco in central and northern Germany after the Renaissance, while the other emerges only at the turn of the eighteenth century. These two trends, however, are distinct not only chronologically but also in their use of materials: lime stucco versus gypsum stucco. The article explains why this distinction developed, and how it influenced both the visual quality of the executed works and the artistic demands placed on the craftsmen. While the older stylistic trend was based on works executed in France — mostly known in the area under study only through hearsay and typically recreated using locally available material mixtures — the later trend drew primarily on French copperplate engravings. These prints served as inspiration for a reorientation of stucco decoration shortly before the eighteenth century. The article traces the origins of these influences and, where known, briefly introduces the artists and their specific material mixtures. Finally, the significance of stucco decoration is discussed within the context of the Baroque Gesamtkunstwerk — an integrated work of art combining architecture, painting, sculpture, stuccowork and garden design. The article also introduces a previously little-known source from the mid-eighteenth century that confirms this significance. This source helps to dispel a commonly held art historical prejudice by revealing which design models were truly famous in Central Germany at the time.
The purpose of this contribution is to shed light on the evolution of public policy studies in France. It should be noted that this discipline was born in the United States in the 1950s mainly based on the works of Harold Lasswell who is known as the founding father of the discipline. Lasswell and his collaborators aimed to study the actions of the State to then be able to help decision-makers act more effectively and of course more democratically. It was in the 1980s that this discipline entered the scientific field in France. We believe that four steps are distinguishable in this regard.1- The attempts of synthesis aimed at bringing and knowing the discipline in France. The works of Madeleine Grawitz and Jean Leca, Yves Mény and Jean-Claude Thoenig, and Patrick Hassenteufel are notable in this regard. They brilliantly managed to clarify the foundations of the discipline and the research carried out in the United States and France in its frameworks. They were convinced that this new branch of political science would help to better understand the logic of public action, which would logically lead to its improvement.2- The multiple works carried out since the 1980s were inspired by the sociology of organizations. Michel Crozier and Erhard Friedberg have particularly prepared a fruitful ground for public policy researchers to access epistemological, theoretical, and methodical tools to analyze French public policies. Of course, the sociology of organizations reveals its American inspirations, and the specialists of the Center for the Sociology of Organizations have not hidden it. The sociology of organizations emphasizes the theoretical values of some concepts such as actor, system, power, areas of uncertainty, and rationality of actors, which show a convincing capacity in the analysis of the strategies of the actors within the organizations and in the analysis of the organizations themselves which are the main frameworks of action in modern societies.3- Research leading to cognitive analysis of public policies in France. Here, we should emphasize the founding works of Pierre Muller and Bruno Jobert. The elaboration of concepts such as representation, mediator, and référentiel in their analyses has opened very useful routes for future researchers to know the logic of public policies in France and the possible means of their change, especially since the 1990s. These researches show a certain utility in the analysis of some major turning points in French politics, among which the neoliberal turn made under the presidency of François Mitterrand, however socialist and attached to left-wing values.4- A new direction of research is known by the studies and analyses of researchers such as Gérard Noiriel, Renaud Payre, and Gilles Pollet. They are at the origin of a new approach in the study of social phenomena and actions of public authorities. Gérard Noiriel in a part of his works gives an overview of an approach that is known as the socio-historical approach. Renaud Payre and Gilles Pollet are among the leading researchers who apply this approach in the field of public policy and the actions of public authorities. They reveal the sociological and historical foundations of policies and actions and show precisely how socio-history differs from historical sociology or sociological history. In the field of analysis of public action, socio-history provides useful tools for researchers to deepen their knowledge in areas such as the emergence of new social categories (unemployed, immigrants, etc.), the transfer of knowledge and experience from one country to another, and the establishment of regional entities such as the European Union.In conclusion, we note that we had, throughout the writing of this article, an implicit objective in our mind: Clarifying the efforts made over the decades in France to be able to import a discipline that has proven its innovative abilities in its original cradle. Public policies are now part of the integrated disciplines in Iranian universities and it is of course necessary to know how the scientists of a developed country attached to its independence and originality, France, have worked at the entrance of a new scientific discipline created outside their country to be able to benefit from it for their development and be at the origin of its development in turn. We hope that Iranian academics and scientists will follow the example of their French colleagues, which appears fully promising.
Political institutions and public administration (General), Political institutions and public administration - Asia (Asian studies only)
The Europe 1 transmitter center in Berus-Überherrn is a site of memory that carries the history of Saarland, a region that is semi-autonomous since the end of World War II and where Franco-German relations are deeply engrained. Installed in 1954-55, only a few meters away from the French border so as to bypass the public broadcasting laws in France, which did not allow private radio and television stations, it was part of the so-called “peripheral” radios whose main market was France. To ensure their market share, these private radios had to equip their stations with the most advanced transmission technologies. The eventful history of the construction of the transmission structure, with its huge roof made of a thin concrete veil, is associated with Bernard Laffaille, René Sarger and Eugène Freyssinet, three famous French engineers, with the later addition of Pierre Xercavins who consolidated the construction in the early 1980s. The symbiosis between the modern transmission technique and avant-garde construction, make this “cathedral of waves” a key work in post-war Europe and a unique landmark on the border’s landscape. The transmitter is one of the significant historical monuments of the 20th century in Saarland since as early as 1999, but it is unused since 2015. The sustainable preservation of this exceptional building, which will be designated as a "landmark of engineering in Germany" in 2021, is being heralded as a political objective on all levels.
Abstract Background MPS IIIA is a rare, degenerative pediatric genetic disease characterized by symptoms impacting cognition, mobility and behavior; the mean age of death is around 15 years of age. Currently, there are no approved therapies for MPS IIIA. Methods A two-year, multi-center, prospective, descriptive cohort study was conducted to document the natural history course of MPS IIIA. In the context of this study, semi-structured interviews were performed with parents of children at study entry and one year later. Interview transcripts were analyzed using thematic analysis methods to identity concepts of interest to children and parents, identify what factors impacted parents’ burden the most, and develop qualitatively-derived disease severity stages. Children were sorted into these stages according to the symptoms their parents described at the entry interview. This sorting was compared quantitatively to the sorting of children at baseline according to the child’s calendar age and their BSID development quotient (DQ). Results 22 parents in France, Germany, the Netherlands and the UK were interviewed. Children ranged in age from 28 to 105 months (mean 61.4 months). The conceptual models for children’s symptoms and impacts and parents’ impacts provided a detailed and comprehensive picture of what it is like for children of various ages and their parents to live with MPS IIIA. Four factors were identified as mediating the burden perceived by parents: state support, family support, time since diagnosis, and parent coping strategy. Four disease stages were developed, accounting for both the presence and the severity of MPS IIIA symptoms. The comparison of children’s sorting into these stages with the BSID DQ and the child’s calendar age showed strong statistical associations. Conclusions The findings of this qualitative research embedded in a natural history study add to the current understanding of MPS IIIA as a complex disease that impacts every aspect of the lives of children and their families. This study demonstrates the unique potential of mixed methods research in rare diseases to address some of the current limitations of more traditional quantitative approaches by providing an individualized, detailed understanding of the patient experience.
The problem of studying the activities of the French Communist Group (FCG), created in Russia in 1918 on the initiative of the Russian Communist Party, is examined. In domestic and foreign historiography, there are works devoted to the history of the formation of this organization and the composition of the group. An analysis of the works shows that the work of the French group in several cities of Russia is presented as the activity of one organization. In this article, special attention is paid to studying the work of the main bureau of the FCG, located in Moscow in the 1918—1920s, as the key core of the organization. The source base of the study is archival documents and sources of personal origin. The appearance, activity and dissolution of the Moscow bureau of the Federal Financial Group are analyzed, the quantitative and professional composition of the participants, the structure of subordination and the distribution of responsibilities are revealed. The main task facing the bureau members was determined — propaganda activities. The main lines of propaganda activity of the Moscow bureau among compatriots are systematized: publication and distribution of print media, holding meetings and rallies, personal meetings and conversations, participation in the First and Second Congresses of the Comintern, work with the parliamentary opposition in France to end the intervention and spread of world revolution ideas. It is proved that, in addition to campaigning, there was also active assistance of the bureau members to French citizens residing or arrested in Russia.
Slavic languages. Baltic languages. Albanian languages
C. A. Bergemann, C. A. Bergemann, C. A. Bergemann
et al.
<p>Zoned hydrothermal monazite-(Ce) from Alpine-type fissures and clefts is used to gain new insights into the tectonic history of the Lepontine Dome in the Central Alps and the timing of deformation along the Rhone-Simplon Fault zone on the dome's western end. Hydrothermal monazites-(Ce) (re)crystallization ages directly date deformation that induces changes in physicochemical conditions of the fissure or cleft fluid. A total of 480 secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) spot analyses from 20 individual crystals, including co-type material of the monazite-(Nd) type locality, record ages for the time of <span class="inline-formula">∼19</span> to 2.7 <span class="inline-formula">Ma</span>, with individual grains recording age ranges of 2 to 7.5 <span class="inline-formula">Myr</span>.
The combination of these age data with geometric considerations and spatial distribution across the Lepontine region gives a more precise young exhumation history for the area. At the northeastern and southwestern edges of the Lepontine Dome, units underwent hydrothermal monazite-(Ce) growth at 19–12.5 and 16.5–10.5 <span class="inline-formula">Ma</span>, respectively, while crystallization of monazite-(Ce) in the eastern Lepontine Dome started later, at 15–10 <span class="inline-formula">Ma</span>. Fissure monazite-(Ce) along the western limit of the dome reports younger ages of 13–7 <span class="inline-formula">Ma</span>. A younger age group around 8–5 <span class="inline-formula">Ma</span> is limited to fissures and clefts associated with the Simplon normal fault and related strike-slip faults such as the Rhone Fault. The data set shows that the monazite-(Ce) age record directly links the fluid-induced interaction between fissure mineral and host rock to the Lepontine Dome's evolution in space and time.
A comparison between hydrothermal monazite-(Ce) and thermochronometric data suggest that hydrothermal monazite-(Ce) dating may allow us to identify areas of slow exhumation or cooling rates during ongoing tectonic activity.</p>
Marc Deconchat, Julien Blanco, Émilie Andrieu
et al.
The landscapes of South-Western France are dotted with many small woodlots that have important ecological, socioeconomic, and cultural functions for local communities. This article presents an interdisciplinary synthesis of work conducted over the last thirty years on these woodlots in the Atelier Pygar Zone (Pyrenees-Garonne). It focuses on the benefits of closely associating approaches of landscape ecology and human and social sciences to understand the current state and recent history of these woodlots and to help in designing landscape projects adapted to local contexts. First, we present the specific ecological characteristics of the woodlots, which are distinguished by the rich diversity of ligneous species and their contribution to numerous ecosystem services. However, these characteristics do not fully explain why these woodlots have been maintained in the landscapes studied whereas they tend to disappear from agricultural landscapes in favour of larger forested areas. Ethnographic research provides a key to understanding this paradox by showing that the presence of woodlots in the Coteaux de Gascogne was the result of strong social rules relating to the House Society system which favours the maintenance of woodland diversity close to farms while producing useful goods and services. The future of these woodlots is nevertheless uncertain given the changes in the current agricultural and forestry context. A better understanding of the links between agriculture and woodlands, notably by introducing the concept of the "rural forest" could be an asset for the development of territories such as the Coteaux de Gascogne.
Jean-Marc Rouillan is one of the founding members of Action directe (1977–1987). In this interview, he talks about the connection between his musical practices and his political activism since the May 1968 events in France, the role of music and sound in the armed struggle of Action directe, and the place he attributes to music in the history of political struggles.
Careful definition and illustrative case studies are fundamental work in developing a Blue Economy. As blue research expands with the world increasingly understanding its importance, policy makers and research institutions worldwide concerned with ocean and coastal regions are demanding further and improved analysis of the Blue Economy. Particularly, in terms of the management connotation, data access, monitoring, and product development, countries are making decisions according to their own needs. As a consequence of this lack of consensus, further dialogue including this cases analysis of the blue economy is even more necessary. This paper consists of four chapters: (I) Understanding the concept of Blue Economy, (II) Defining Blue economy theoretical cases, (III) Introducing Blue economy application cases and (IV) Providing an outlook for the future. Chapters (II) and (III) summarizes all the case studies into nine aspects, each aiming to represent different aspects of the blue economy. This paper is a result of knowledge and experience collected from across the global ocean observing community, and is only made possible with encouragement, support and help of all members. Despite the blue economy being a relatively new concept, we have demonstrated our promising exploration in a number of areas. We put forward proposals for the development of the blue economy, including shouldering global responsibilities to protect marine ecological environment, strengthening international communication and sharing development achievements, and promoting the establishment of global blue partnerships. However, there is clearly much room for further development in terms of the scope and depth of our collective understanding and analysis.
Science, General. Including nature conservation, geographical distribution
"No two fingerprints are alike," or so it goes. For nearly a hundred years fingerprints have represented definitive proof of individual identity in our society. We trust them to tell us who committed a crime, whether a criminal record exists, and how to resolve questions of disputed identity. But in this text, Simon Cole reveals that the history of criminal identification is far murkier than we have been led to believe. Cole traces the modern system of fingerprint identification to the 19th-century bureaucratic state, and its desire to track and control increasingly mobile, diverse populations whose race or ethnicity made them suspect in the eyes of authorities. In an intriguing history that traverses the globe, taking us to India, Argentina, France, England, and the United States, Cole excavates the forgotten history of criminal identification - from photography to exotic anthropometric systems based on measuring body parts, from finger-printing to DNA typing. He reveals how fingerprinting ultimately won the trust of the public and the law only after a long battle against rival identification systems. As we rush headlong into the era of genetic identification, and as fingerprint errors are being exposed, this history uncovers the fascinating interplay of our elusive individuality, police and state power, and the quest for scientific certainty.
The concept of favourites is complex, and over time its terminology has evolved. While it initially assumed a military aspect – which in the second half of the seventeenth century could, to a lesser extent, still be the case, according to Jules-Louis Bolé de Chamlay’s path: in the shadow of the powerful Louvois he maintained a privileged relationship with the monarch, who used it in his cabinet strategy as “minister of the Occult War” (see Philippe Cénat, Chamlay. Le stratège secret de Louis XIV [Paris: Belin, 2011]) – a governmental one as well as having a strong family clan, it seems that this political notion later became a concept of intimacy and friendship, which is undoubtedly the case with Alexandre Bontemps. Under the reign of Louis XIV it is not so much the term “favourite” that should be used, but rather that of beneficiary or recipient of royal favour, which everyone could one day claim according to the monarchical system of the Ancien Régime, but with more less enthusiasm and/or persistence. Bontemps, like others, was able to enjoy this privilege for nearly fifty years.
Four times between 1862 and 1896, the painter Jean-Léon Gérôme returned to the figure and the Versailles of Louis XIV. While the frame painted by Jean-Louis Gérôme has been restored with a remarkable concern for accuracy, his sense of staging reflects a personal and original reflection on political power and how it was exercised within a court society.
Citizen science is growing as a field of research with contributions from diverse disciplines, promoting innovation in science, society, and policy. Inter- and transdisciplinary discussions and critical analyses are needed to use the current momentum to evaluate, demonstrate, and build on the advances that have been made in the past few years. This paper synthesizes results of discussions at the first international citizen science conference of the European Citizen Science Association (ECSA) in 2016 in Berlin, Germany, and distills major points of the discourse into key recommendations. To enhance innovation in science, citizen science needs to clearly demonstrate its scientific benefit, branch out across disciplines, and foster active networking and new formats of collaboration, including true co-design with participants. For fostering policy advances, it is important to embrace opportunities for policy-relevant monitoring and policy development and to work with science funders to find adequate avenues and evaluation tools to support citizen science. From a society angle it is crucial to engage with societal actors in various formats that suit participants and to evaluate two-way learning outcomes as well as to develop the transformative role of science communication. We hope that these key perspectives will promote citizen science progress at the science-society-policy interface.