Modern artificial intelligence (AI) systems act with a high degree of independence yet lack legal personhood-a paradox that fractures doctrines grounded in human-centric notions of mens rea and actus reus. This Article introduces Operational Agency (OA)-a permeable legal fiction structured as an ex post evidentiary framework-and Operational Agency Graph (OAG), a tool for mapping causal interactions among human actors, organizations, and AI systems. OA evaluates an AI's observable operational characteristics: its goal-directedness (as a proxy for intent), predictive processing (as a proxy for foresight), and safety architecture (as a proxy for a standard of care). OAG operationalizes that analysis by embedding these characteristics in a causal graph to trace and apportion culpability among developers, fine-tuners, deployers, and users. Drawing on corporate criminal liability, the innocent-agent doctrine, and secondary and vicarious liability frameworks, the Article shows how OA and OAG strengthen existing doctrines. Across five real-world case studies spanning tort, civil rights, constitutional law, and antitrust, it demonstrates how the framework addresses challenges ranging from autonomous vehicle collisions to algorithmic price-fixing, offering courts a principled evidentiary method-and legislatures and industry a conceptual foundation-to ensure human accountability keeps pace with technological autonomy, without conferring personhood on AI.
It is well known that the public position represents a vital source of stability for the employee and their family, as the employee devotes effort throughout their service to serve the country and obtain material benefits and rights that ensure a decent standard of living. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the legislator to preserve these rights, as failure to do so may drive the employee to pursue illegal means to secure them. From this concern arises the problem of the study: Have the Iraqi and Iranian legislators safeguarded the legal rights resulting from the termination of an administrative employee’s service in Iraq and Iran?
Accordingly, the main question posed by this study is: What are the legal implications and rights arising from the termination of the service of an administrative employee in Iraq and Iran? By applying a descriptive-analytical approach to examine Iraqi and Iranian laws related to this issue, the study found significant areas of similarity between the two countries in terms of the effects and legal rights resulting from termination. Both Iraqi and Iranian employment laws permit termination of civil service under specific conditions and regulations. An employee may submit a request for termination upon completing a certain period of service, and the decision rests with both the employee and the aadministration.Additionally, Iraqi law aligns with Iranian law in cases of retirement referrals, based on the conditions outlined in each system, including the agreement found in Article (First/Second Paragraph) of the amended Unified Retirement Law No. (27) of 2006. However, the study also identified differences. Iraqi legislation differentiates between termination of service as a matter of permissibility and employee choice, whereas Iranian legislation does not distinguish between voluntary and mandatory termination when granting public employees their rights. The study also clarifies how Iranian law allows challenges to decisions involving the denial of pension rights.
The Transition Period Charter of Ethiopia was the foundational document to the Federal Constitution, only a step to cultural violence from direct and structural violence against human and democratic rights of the Ethiopian society. A doctrinal analysis was carried out on this Transitional Period Charter and its derivative laws against secondary sources of law. Historical materials were used to ascertain ‘what did the Peace Loving and Democratic Forces as the charter framers intend to achieve’. The Charter analysis revealed that ethnic groups political categorisation by the Transitional Period Government was only to escalate the use of physical power against civic/civil rights into social identity-based violence. Power was concentrated in the executive government. The transition period governance was dominated by political interests of the Tigray Peoples’ Liberation Front. The Charter categorised ethnic groups as political units in contested territorial jurisdictions with the right to self-determination, including secession. It highly entrenched the future constitutional status within an ethnic federal system that ethnic violent conflicts in federal Ethiopia escalated ever than before. The violence roots its causes with unrepresented decisions on ethnic categorisation and unnegotiated ethnic boundary demarcations by the Charter.
Amelia Cahyadini, Tasya Safiranita, Sherly Ayuna Putri
et al.
The digital economy has triggered conflicts over the taxation of transnational economic activities. The international tax principles contained in the Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement (DTAA) are no longer considered relevant to the digital economy. The OECD introduced the ‘physical presence’ approach, particularly Pillar One, offering hope for Indonesia to develop domestic regulations that address digital economic activities. Against this context, this research aims to examine the ideal model of adopting the Pillar One in Indonesian domestic law as a step to support the achievement of the 17th goal of the SDGs and analyze the potential challenges that may surface in its implementation. This study uses a normative juridical approach with literature study techniques to collect relevant secondary data. The results show that the adoption of Pillar One in the form of a law shown as an ideal model for Indonesia because it is in accordance with the principle of legal hierarchy accuracy and addresses the concerns of distortion of democracy. However, this adoption poses challenges, mainly related to the long bureaucracy in the formation process as well as the need for adequate technology, information, and communication infrastructure in the implementation stage.
Identification of property in Imami jurisprudence and, accordingly, in Iranian law, is conditional on having exchange value, legitimacy, possession and transferability. Unusual digital tokens that have created a huge transformation in the field of intellectual property rights and virtual objects are known from the perspective of common property; However, the mere customary identification of its property is not the reason for the validity of the property from a jurisprudential and legal point of view, and other conditions for property identification must be met. This research, with a descriptive and analytical method and using library and internet tools, deals with the feasibility of applying the taxation conditions in Iranian law and Imami jurisprudence to Non-Fungible Token. related to property, such as whether it is movable or immovable, the ability to seize it, etc. in relation to this issue in future research. The results of the research indicate the conformity of the four criteria for identification of ownership obtained from the summation of the opinions of Imamiyyah jurists and the custom of economists on digital tokens. Therefore, such tokens in virtual space have financial conditions and will be classified as assets, and civil and commercial legal effects will follow them.1. Introduction
The world has entered a new era since the beginning of the 1980s. Understanding what it is and why it is and understanding the necessary planning to cope with it requires the use of new concepts and theories. Virtual space, as a product of new information and communication technology, has a decisive role in this. This real space, which is an extension of human society in the context of information and communication technology, is an infinite space that organizes all kinds of interactions through information and communication in a digital context. In this space, regardless of the limitation caused by physical geography, extensive communication between persons with each other, persons with objects and objects with each other is provided through computers and in a digital process.
One of the latest phenomena of organizing economic and non-economic interactions in the virtual space is called blockchain, which has created a huge evolution in terms of security, speed and transparency of data. Blockchain technology has brought many derivatives to humanity, one of the most prominent of which is Non-Federal Digital Tokens (NFT). These tokens have various applications in the field of economy, trade, culture, politics and other social and interactive affairs of humans with each other, humans with objects and objects with each other. Although today, art, business, and music are at the forefront of using this tool, and the buying and selling of things such as works of art, digital books, and in fact anything that can be converted into this type of token has become common.
The basic question regarding these tokens is that according to these economic functions, from the perspective of Imami jurisprudence and according to Iranian law, do these tokens have the conditions to be recognized as property so that it can be assumed that they can be owned and have legal effects on them? or that if buying and selling takes place, it is only for the common practice and basically these tokens do not have juridical value. The purpose of this research is to investigate the conformity of property identification criteria in Imamiyyah jurisprudence and Iranian law on non-homologous digital tokens.
Considering that previous researches have generally dealt with finance in the cyber space or paid attention to cryptocurrencies in general, the present research has this innovation that it specifically deals with the finance of non-traditional digital tokens, which until the time of writing this article, in Persian sources, there is no research in this field. The context is not visible.
2. Methodology
The method used for this research is descriptive-analytical. In this article, two categories of sources are used: the first category includes authentic books of Imami jurisprudence, laws related to property rights in Iran's legal system, and authentic articles that serve as a reference for obtaining the nature of property and the criteria required for token comparison. Non-homosexual digital tokens are considered in Imamiya and Iranian jurisprudence, and the second category includes valid educational courses, international authoritative articles and sites that are used to obtain the required information related to non-homosexual digital tokens.
Non-Fungible Token in Iran, like in other countries, is a new phenomenon and does not have a diverse and extensive research history. in other words, this article is the first research in Iran's legal system that comments on the property of these virtual objects.
It should be noted that some limited research related to the rights of Non-Fungible Token in Iran has been done in the form of a thesis in the field of intellectual and intellectual property rights, such as the role of Non-Fungible Token in supporting intellectual property rights at the University of Tehran.
3. Results and Discussion
In order to identify any issue in terms of whether it is tax or not, it is necessary to determine the classification of the issue, because each classification of property requires its own criteria for taxation. In Iranian law, property is divided into the same category as tangible property and benefits. A benefit that is included in the category of property can be manifested in two forms, object or service. As a result, in general, regardless of whether the subject of property is object or benefit, property can be considered in this division according to its different nature, object or service. Any non-physical activity that is transferred from its provider to the applicant is called a service, the characteristics of services include intangibility, non-storability, uniqueness, customer participation in services, and inseparability. In contrast to services, Non-Fungible Token have the ability to be stored in digital wallets, they are also independent of their creator after production and are portable in the virtual space through transfer on the blockchain platform, as a result, digital tokens are not considered services in this division and they should be put it in the category of tangible property.
The basis for examining the wealth criteria of tangible property can be pure Imamiyyah jurisprudence or special economic custom, which includes the opinions of economists. In Imamiyyah jurisprudence, there are three views on the property of the subjects, according to the first point of view, the mere presence of some kind of halal benefit is sufficient to consider the subject as property, but the criticism that can be made to this opinion is that there are some subjects that in the perspective of Iranian law And custom has value, but their benefit is not a generic; Like the photo of the father of the family, which has no benefit in generic standard, while it is very important for his family, and each member of the family may pay a lot of money to the owner to get this photo. The second view considers having a legitimate interest to be enough to be property, but this opinion is also incomplete; Because it is true that the condition of having a legitimate interest is comprehensive; But after examining more opinions, we will realize that the mere benefit and legitimacy does not make the title of property on an issue true. The third and final view in Imamiyyah jurisprudence also considers rational benefit as the criterion for property, which, like the previous views, faces the problem of being incomplete; Because there are many examples in Iran that may have a small rational benefit; However, from the perspective of Imami jurisprudence, they should not be considered property; Like pork, which is not worth eating due to impurity in Iranian law. The opinions of economists are also incomplete just like Imamiyyah jurisprudence and cannot provide comprehensive criteria and obstacles to identify tangible property. The first opinion is the theory of value and utility, which was presented by some thinkers in the 19th century. According to this theory, like the third opinion of the Imami jurists, any subject that has a rational benefit is considered property, while the mere possession of a rational benefit is not considered property and it is not under the ownership of individuals, for example, consider air, it is true that it has the rational benefit of life for humans, but it cannot be considered as property and considered as the property of limited individuals. The second opinion in the specific economic custom is the theory of value resulting from the cost of production and labor, which was presented by Adam Smith, so everything that is created based on human labor has value, but this opinion is also incomplete. Some examples of property, such as horses, are without value. The fact that a person does something on them, they are considered independently from the perspective of custom and property law.
In general, according to the fact that each of the examined opinions is incomplete, the criteria of tangible property should be found in the examination of the relationship between people and property, with a little thought in this connection, four criteria of having an exchange value that causes demand, having juridical and legal legitimacy, ability to possess and transferability can be declared as the criteria of tangible property and concluded that the criteria of tangible property in Iranian law is a combination of Imamiyyah jurists and the special custom of economists. on the same basis, Iranian law has established rules in paragraph 3 of article 190 and articles 215, 240, 348, 422, 637, 754, 773 that imply compliance with these criteria for tangible property. in the end, to check the value of digital tokens, it is necessary to verify the existence of the mentioned criteria in this type of virtual object. Non-fungible tokens due to multiple and unique applications such as creating wealth through selling works of art and playing games and creating virtual property security through providing intellectual and intellectual property rights qualify for the first criterion, i.e. having an exchange value that creates demand. In relation to the second criterion, in Imami jurisprudence as the basis of Iranian law, there are principles that can be used to leave it in case of doubt, in relation to non-fungible tokens due to the lack of a source that indicates sanctity or non-sanctity. There is a doubt in legal and jurisprudential legitimacy that by using the principle of falsity and the principle of authenticity, it is possible to judge the legitimacy of non-fungible tokens, so non-sexual digital tokens have juridical and legal legitimacy as well. Captivability is also subject to the ability to be available and assigned, which non-fungible tokens are also eligible for this criterion because they have the ability to be stored in digital wallets. In order to verify transferability as the fourth criterion, it should be noted that one of the reasons that a person reproduces and offers a work in the form of non-fungible tokens is because it is possible to maintain the intellectual property rights related to his work by selling these works and earn income, the premise of making money in this way is the transfer of non-fungible tokens to the buyer of the work, which in practice is done through the payment of the blockchain network fee and transfer to the person's wallet, as a result, digital tokens are also transferable.
4. Conclusions and Future Research
Finally, according to the comparisons made and the arguments expressed, it can be claimed that according to Imami jurisprudence and Iranian law, these tokens are considered property and are included in the property category. Considering the definition of property for non-fungible tokens can be the introduction of new and important research that is suggested by the author of the following topics:
The issue of the legitimacy of non-fungible tokens has been examined in this article only using practical principles to solve the initial confusion and it is suggested that experts in Islamic sciences deal with this aspect in a more specialized manner.
By discovering the value of these tokens, as mentioned in the conclusion, new legal issues are created that can be investigated in this direction. The topics that can be suggested for research are:
1- matching transactions based on non-representative digital assets with certain contracts,
2- the nature of creating non-representative digital assets is a contract or an event.
3- Since the value of these tokens was determined in this research, it is suggested that the legislator, by introducing a new law or amending the previous laws, consider the laws related to the value of digital tokens as illegal and establish special rules related to it.
4. The identification of these tokens as property is the reason for the authenticity of the transactions whose subject is non-ideal digital tokens (if there are other conditions for the authenticity of the transactions). Create transactions of these tokens.
Regulation of industry, trade, and commerce. Occupational law, Islamic law
Newtons Laws of Motion form the basis of classical mechanics, but misconceptions about their interrelationships persist in pedagogy. A prevalent misunderstanding is that Newtons First Law is a trivial consequence of the Second Law. This paper argues that the First Law serves a logically distinct foundational role that defines the context in which the Second Law is valid. This conceptual distinction is clarified through classical thought experiments and further supported by insights from relativistic mechanics. Furthermore, the paper discusses the notion of the zeroth Law. It evaluates several candidates, including the absoluteness of space and time, the conservation and additivity of mass, and the locality of force in time. By articulating the details of the logical structure of Newtons Laws, this article offers theoretical clarity and pedagogical value for the teaching and interpretation of Newtonian mechanics.
The concept of legal gap is tackled from a number of logical perspectives and semantic methods. After presenting our own goal (Section 1), a first introduction into legal logic refers to Bobbio’s works and his formalization of legal statements (Sections 2 and 3). Then Woleński’s contribution to the area is taken into account through his reference to the distinction between two juridical systems (viz. Common Law vs Civil Law) and the notion of conditional norms (Section 4). The notion of reason is also highlighted in the case of Raz’s legal logic, thereby leading to a future connection with von Wright’s logic of truth and an analogy made with an anti-realist reading of truth-values and norms (Section 5). Our personal contribution is introduced through a reflection on how logic should deal with the logical form of norms (Section 6), before entering a number of crucial definitions and distinctions for the concepts of norm, legal statement, and promulgation (Section 7). The final point is a proposed semantics for legal statements, which is both many-valued and gap-friendly (Section 8). A distinction between a number of requirements for permission and forbiddance leads to a set of non-classical juridical systems in which non-permission and forbiddance are not equivalent with each other any more; this does justice to Woleński’s former distinction between Common Law and Civil Law, also leading ultimately to a non-classical square of legal oppositions in which several legal operators may collapse into other ones (Section 9).
The purpose of the research is to conduct an in-depth analysis and evaluation of existing “the Public and Local Administration” (PA) educational programs across the universities of Kazakhstan. This study was carried out with the support of the Astana Civil Service Hub. The object of the research is 120 universities, 45 of which train personnel in 48 educational programs within the bachelor’s degree (PA), and 38 universities have 73 master’s degree programs in PA major. Only six universities provide eight doctoral educational programs respectively. The Academy of Public Administration (APA) under the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan gives an opportunity to obtain a specialized PhD profile degree in PA. In the course of the study, the number of methods such as: comparative analysis, observation, induction and deduction, logical approach, and interviews were engaged. Current research has analyzed the higher education sources in the field of PA, namely educational programs from the open platforms of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan, along with syllabuses, regulatory educational legal acts, legislation in the field of PA and expert interviews. The findings come from calculating the ratio of disciplines according to the components of which the taught disciplines were distributed: management, economics, law, public policy, digital knowledge, and interdisciplinary disciplines. Results indicate that the PA undegraduate programs (39 universities out of 45) are mainly synchronized with economic educational programs. The research will be continued with regard to the assessment of the academic personnel and research capacity of universities within PA educational programs, alongside with an analysis of the APA training programs correspondingly.
Harni Indri Ati Sidabalok, Diana Amir, Herlina Manik
In the Toba Batak Indigenous People (patrilineal kinship) the position of men is very prominent and strong, so that the heirs in the Toba Batak Indigenous People are only men, not women because girls will marry and leave their relatives. However, there have been developments and changes to the inheritance of the Toba Batak Community which have occurred due to various factors. Research objectives 1) To find out and analyze the position of daughters in inheriting in the Toba Batak Community in Simpang Mesuji Village, Simpang Pematang District, Mesuji Regency, Lampung Province and 2) To find out and analyze the factors that influence changes in inheritance distribution in the Toba Batak Community in Simpang Mesuji Village Simpang Pematang District, Mesuji Regency, Lampung Province. The research uses empirical legal research methods, to see how the law works in society. Girls have a position in inheriting to the Toba Batak Community in Simpang Mesuji Village, Simpang Pematang District, Mesuji Regency, Lampung Province. The factors that influence the changes in the division of inheritance in the Toba Batak Community in the village are the factors of education, religion, justice, and compassion.
We propose a novel Hermite-Taylor correction function method to handle embedded boundary and interface conditions for Maxwell's equations. The Hermite-Taylor method evolves the electromagnetic fields and their derivatives through order $m$ in each Cartesian coordinate. This makes the development of a systematic approach to enforce boundary and interface conditions difficult. Here we use the correction function method to update the numerical solution where the Hermite-Taylor method cannot be applied directly. Time derivatives of boundary and interface conditions, converted into spatial derivatives, are enforced to obtain a stable method and relax the time-step size restriction of the Hermite-Taylor correction function method. The proposed high-order method offers a flexible systematic approach to handle embedded boundary and interface problems, including problems with discontinuous solutions at the interface. This method is also easily adaptable to other first order hyperbolic systems.
Indonesia's population with a Muslim majority (87.18%) makes the need for halal products very large. There is a need for halal product guarantees for products entering or circulating in Indonesia. Halal guarantee in Indonesia is regulated by the Government through legislation. The halalness of a product can be determined by conducting halal certification by inspecting the product from the selection of raw materials, the production process, to the final product. The halal certification process in Indonesia has been developing. This study aims to describe the history, development, and implementation of halal certification in Indonesia, one of which is before and after the issuance of law on Halal Product Guarantee ( Halal Law ). Initially, halal certification in Indonesia was taken over by the Majelis Ulama Indonesia (MUI) which is a civil society movement that has the support of the state. But after the issuance of the Halal Law, the authority for halal certification was transferred to the Badan Penyelenggara Jaminan Produk Halal (BPJPH) which is an independent state institution under the Ministry of Religion of the Republic of Indonesia. This was also followed by several changes in several policies related to halal certification. Halal certification which was initially voluntary and does not yet have strong legal legitimacy has now become mandatory for business actors. Implementation of the Halal Law began on October 17, 2019, and will be carried out in stages. In the implementation effort, there needs to be a good collaboration between the government, business actors, and the community.
Notary is a public official who has the authority to make authentic deeds, who is appointed and dismissed by the government, namely by the Minister of Law and Human Rights and the Notary at the time of appointment by the Minister was not holding another position. Notaries in carrying out their state duties make a deed, namely in the form of a minuta deed (original deed). UUJN not only regulates the duties of a Notary, but also regulates authority, obligations and other matters within the scope of notary law. The law does not only regulate notaries but also regulates prospective notaries who are currently apprenticing at a notary's office. This research uses legal research methodology, normative juridical which uses statutory approaches, conceptual approaches, and historical approaches. The result of this study is from the provisions in Article 15 paragraph (1) of the UUJN it is explained that a Notary has the authority to make authentic deeds, in this case causing problems with the provisions of Article 16A paragraph (2) of the UUJN that a notary candidate who is currently an apprentice at a notary's office and has the obligation to keep confidential matters matters in the process of making the deed he made. The discrepancy between these articles causes problems in the form of unclear norms regarding the meaning of the deed drawn up by a notary candidate who is currently an apprentice at the notary apprentice's office in Article 16A paragraph (2) of the Law on the position of notary public.
KEYWORDS: Authentic Deed, Prospective Notary, Apprenticeship, Notary.
The article analyzes alternative dimensions of dissidence and civil protests in Soviet Armenia, which covers the period from the mid-1960s to the mid-1980s, from the Khrushchev Thaw to Gorbachev’s Perestroika. Comparative study of the dissident paradigm has political and civilizational significance. The dissident paradigm is precisely associated with the entire human rights movement, and human rights activists were those who were called dissidents. Thanks to them, ideas of an alternative development of Soviet society and public authorities emerged.
At the present stage, the democratic rights of citizens, for which the intelligentsia and human rights activists fought in the 1960s-1980s, are proclaimed and enshrined in the Constitution of the Republic of Armenia. But this does not mean that the issue of human rights has been resolved in reality, since in reality human rights are often violated, first of all, by the public authorities themselves. The experience of the first generation of human rights defenders continues to be of interest to numerous committees and commissions advocating respect for the constitutional and legal rights of citizens.
The relevance of the research topic is due to the fact that the processes of formation of a democratic society and the rule of law in modern Armenia put forward the task of effectively protecting human rights and freedoms. Given the fact that the recognition of human rights as a basic value was the result of a long evolution of society, it is important to see that their prerequisite was the struggle of the most socially active people for the possibility of civilizational development.
Political science (General), Political institutions and public administration (General)
Moore's Law has been used by semiconductor industry as predicative indicators of the industry and it has become a self-fulfilling prophecy. Now more people tend to agree that the original Moore's Law started to falter. This paper proposes a possible quantitative modification to Moore's Law. It can cover other derivative laws of Moore's Law as well. It intends to more accurately predict the roadmap of chip's performance and energy consumption.
Information on urban tree canopies is fundamental to mitigating climate change [1] as well as improving quality of life [2]. Urban tree planting initiatives face a lack of up-to-date data about the horizontal and vertical dimensions of the tree canopy in cities. We present a pipeline that utilizes LiDAR data as ground-truth and then trains a multi-task machine learning model to generate reliable estimates of tree cover and canopy height in urban areas using multi-source multi-spectral satellite imagery for the case study of Chicago.
We prove a recursive formula for plethysm coefficients of the form $a^μ_{λ,(m)}$, generalising results on plethysms due to Bruns--Conca--Varbaro and de Boeck--Paget--Wildon. From this we deduce a stability result and resolve two conjectures of de Boeck concerning plethysms, as well as obtain new results on Sylow branching coefficients for symmetric groups for the prime 2. Further, letting $P_n$ denote a Sylow 2-subgroup of $S_n$, we show that almost all Sylow branching coefficients of $S_n$ corresponding to the trivial character of $P_n$ are positive.
Frederick Law, Antoine Cerfon, Benjamin Peherstorfer
In the design of stellarators, energetic particle confinement is a critical point of concern which remains challenging to study from a numerical point of view. Standard Monte Carlo analyses are highly expensive because a large number of particle trajectories need to be integrated over long time scales, and small time steps must be taken to accurately capture the features of the wide variety of trajectories. Even when they are based on guiding center trajectories, as opposed to full-orbit trajectories, these standard Monte Carlo studies are too expensive to be included in most stellarator optimization codes. We present the first multifidelity Monte Carlo scheme for accelerating the estimation of energetic particle confinement in stellarators. Our approach relies on a two-level hierarchy, in which a guiding center model serves as the high-fidelity model, and a data-driven linear interpolant is leveraged as the low-fidelity surrogate model. We apply multifidelity Monte Carlo to the study of energetic particle confinement in a 4-period quasi-helically symmetric stellarator, assessing various metrics of confinement. Stemming from the very high computational efficiency of our surrogate model as well as its sufficient correlation to the high-fidelity model, we obtain speedups of up to 10 with multifidelity Monte Carlo compared to standard Monte Carlo.