Hasil untuk "Sewage collection and disposal systems. Sewerage"

Ambika Kumar, Anshu Kumar, Neetu Yadav et al.

Zou Maojun, Yang Xuejing, Zhang Jinyang

【目的】随着我国“30·60”“双碳”目标的推进，低碳、零碳及负碳技术不断涌现，准确评估这些新兴技术的发展前景并优化其发展路径则显得至关重要。前瞻性全生命周期评价(LCA)已被证实能有效评估新兴技术并指导其早期开发，可以被用于水处理领域新兴技术的评估与分析。【方法】本文对前瞻性LCA在水处理领域的现有案例进行选取梳理，主要分析了前瞻性LCA的建模过程，包括功能单位、系统边界、前景和背景数据的建立以及数据的不确定性与敏感性分析。【结果】水处理领域前瞻性LCA的功能单位和系统边界可与传统LCA保持一致。前景数据现有建立方法可以分为情景预测和放大，但尚无适合所有情景的方法，需根据研究需求进行选择。背景数据可通过对电力数据的预测，使评估结果更加准确。前瞻性LCA数据不确定性会显著加剧，必须进行严格的不确定性及敏感性分析，以保障评估结果的可靠性。【结论】前瞻性LCA通常聚焦于未来时间点的建模，功能单位定义、系统边界划定以及前景与背景数据的获取，均需依据技术在未来时间点进行预测。此外，现有前瞻性LCA研究通常沿用传统LCA的评估框架，缺乏可靠的评估系统，未来亟需更适合前瞻性LCA的框架和方法。

Sheng Li, Shi Jun, Tang Xianchun et al.

【目的】随着新兴技术的快速发展和学科交叉融合的深入推进，水处理教学面临新的机遇与挑战。本文旨在通过引入先进技术手段，提升学生对絮凝过程的理解，并探索计算机视觉与深度学习在水处理教学中的应用潜力。【方法】本文涉及的计算机视觉技术是应用计算机算法对图像像素矩阵进行分析并提取特征。在混凝试验过程中通过照相技术获取特定混凝阶段的絮凝体图像，再应用图像分析软件，对絮凝体投影面积、周长等图像特征参数进行定量计算，并归纳与混凝效果的相关性。絮凝体特征分析的另一途径是采用深度神经网络模型算法实现絮凝体图像的智能识别，系统探究其与混凝试验结果的关联规律。【结果】通过计算机视觉分析得到的絮凝体尺寸、分形维数等絮凝体特征参数与处理效果显现出明确的相关关系，混凝机理得到生动的诠释。另外，深度神经网络算法对絮凝体特征实现了准确的识别，人工智能算法对絮凝体图像良好的分析能力激发了学生的学习热情。该教学方法使学生对絮凝体形态特征和絮凝动力学过程的认识从定性观察跨越到理性认知，显著深化了对絮凝动力学以及混凝机理的理解。【结论】本文为计算机视觉和深度神经网络技术在水处理领域的教学应用提供了示范案例，为培养复合型创新人才奠定了基础。

Hosna Rezaei, Hani Sayahi

In response to the urgent global issue of environmental pollution, particularly water contamination by high-chroma organic pollutants, there has been a growing focus within the scientific community on developing advanced materials for efficient pollutant removal. One such promising material is graphene-like carbon nitride (g-C₃N₄), which possesses excellent chemical stability, high surface area, and photocatalytic properties. This essay delves into the facile synthesis of g-C3N4-x for effectively removing high-chroma organic pollutants from water, exploring its potential applications, advantages, and prospects. Additionally, a g-C3N4-x photocatalyst has been synthesized in this study by introducing nitrogen vacancies through a one-step reduction process. The optimized g-C3N4-x catalyst exhibited a superior MB and TC yield of 73% and 83.6%, respectively, under visible light, representing a 4.5-fold increase compared to the bulk g-C3N4 catalyst. This advancement is attributed to the synergistic effects of nitrogen vacancies defects, which enhance light absorption, facilitate electron-hole pair separation, and increase the number of active sites on the catalyst surface. In our research, we successfully created a g-C3N4-x photocatalyst by incorporating nitrogen vacancies using a one-step reduction technique. The optimized g-C3N4-x catalyst displayed an impressive 73% MB and 83.6% yield for TC under visible light, 4.5 times higher than the standard g-C₃N₄ catalyst. This improvement is attributed to the synergistic effects of nitrogen vacancies defects, which enhance light absorption, aid in separating electron-hole pairs, and increase the number of active sites on the catalyst's surface.

H. Al-Aizari, Fatima Aslaou, Ali R. Al-Aizari et al.

Groundwater is an essential and indispensable resource, meeting dire needs for drinking and irrigation purposes. The aim of this study is to assess the suitability of groundwater quality for drinking purposes. This evaluation will be conducted using the Groundwater Pollution Index (GPI), the nitrate pollution index (NPI), and the geographic information system (GIS) in Sidi Slimane, Morocco. In this study, a comprehensive collection of 20 samples was obtained from various locations for analysis and evaluation. Hadrochemical facies of this study area showed that out of 20 samples, 90% belonged to a type (Na+-K+-Cl−-SO42−), while only 10% fell into a category (Ca2+-Mg2+-Cl−-SO42−). The Groundwater Pollution Index values ranged from 0.7 to 10.8, with an average of 7.03; about 60% of the groundwater samples analyzed in this study area were classified as highly polluted and unsuitable for drinking purposes. Nitrate index values ranged from −0.9 to 10.5. Approximately 80% of the sampled sites require treatment before consumption. According to the Nitrate Pollution Index (NPI), it is essential to regularly monitor 16 well sites to prevent nitrate contamination resulting from human activities, including waste disposal in open areas and sewage infiltration. This study recommends raising farmers’ awareness of the use of slow-release natural fertilizers made from nitrogen rather than nitrogen-based fertilizers, reducing waste disposal by residents, and maintaining an appropriate sewage network to minimize sewage flow leakage. This study plays a vital role in identifying the polluted areas and highlighting the need to take appropriate measures to control the sources of pollution in this study area in order to protect water resources and ensure the provision of safe water to the local population.

D. Burchart-Korol, Paweł Zawartka

Results of life cycle inventory (LCI) and life cycle assessment (LCA) for septic tanks collecting domestic sewage were presented. The study included the whole life cycle: construction, use and end-of-life stages of septic tanks. The analyses were conducted basing on actual data concerning performance of 793 septic tanks in Żory. Environmental impact assessment of the life cycle of septic tanks was conducted with TRACi and ReCiPe methods. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emission, eutrophication, fossil fuel depletion and metal depletion indicators were calculated and determinants of LCA of septic tanks were analysed. The system boundary was from cradle to grave. It was concluded that at the construction stage, GHG emission and fossil fuel depletion indicators are determined by the amount of concrete, steel, polyester resin, polyethylene, cast iron and PCV. At the use stage, GHG emission is determined by the amount and type of electricity used to treat sewage in a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). Untreated wastewater, introduced into the environment (leaking tanks and users discharging sewage), is a determinant of infl uence on eutrophication. Life cycle inventory and environmental assessment of septic tanks with life cycle perspective are presented in the literature for the fi rst time. The results highlight the importance of including each stage in the environmental assessment of elements of the urban wastewater system. Archives vol 45 no 4 a4 srodki_kor 1.indd 68 2019-11-14 11:06:44 Environmental life cycle assessment of septic tanks in urban wastewater system – a case study for Poland 69 showed that hitherto works have concerned the issue of soil pollution, and resulting groundwater pollution, caused by leaks or wrong use of septic tanks (Meile et al. 2010, Richards et al. 2016, Schaider et al. 2016, Swartz et al. 2006, Wilcox et al. 2009, 2010). Existing sanitation practices in the majority of developing countries rely mainly on on-site waste treatment approaches (Wang et al. 2014), including fl ush and waterless latrines connected to pit or septic tanks as a basic treatment of the waste (Anastasopoulou et al. 2018). According to Somlai et al. (2019) septic systems used for on-site wastewater treatment are potential sources of groundwater and atmospheric pollution. The study (Somlai et al. 2019) demonstrated that there are distinct spatiotemporal patterns for both CO2 and CH4 fl uxes observed over a septic tank soakaway driven by both environmental factors and subsurface effl uent dispersal. Onsite wastewater treatment is a potential source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Considering the large number of onsite septic tank systems in use internationally, potentially constituting a signifi cant source of GHG emissions, there has been a surprising lack of direct fi eld measurements of these fl uxes to the atmosphere. Most of the existing septic system emission models rely on load-based calculations or estimated emission factors. The IPCC provides guidelines on national GHG inventories following an organic load-based approach to estimate septic system emissions. These guidelines only consider CH4 emissions from anaerobic degradation in septic tanks. Direct CO2 emissions from septic systems are omitted in the GHG inventories as they are of biogenic origin. Numerous recent studies on septic systems are focused mainly on the attenuation of chemical and biological pollutants and the risk for contamination of groundwater (Keegan et al. 2014), wells or surface waters (Dubber and Gill 2017, Ockenden et al. 2014, Withers et al. 2012) from septic systems. However, there is a limited number of studies with a scope on quantifying gas emissions from septic systems. Determinants of environmental assessment of Polish individual wastewater treatment plants in a life cycle perspective were presented by Burchart-Korol and Zawartka (2019). Environmental life cycle assessment of wastewater treatment plant under Polish condition was shown by BurchartKorol et al. (2017a). Nevertheless, there are still only few studies presenting results of an environmental analysis for the life cycle of septic tanks, which are a signifi cant element of water and sewage management in Poland, especially in the areas of scattered site housing (Burchart-Korol et al. 2017b, Zawartka 2017). The aim of the research was to assess environmental impacts of construction, use and end-of-life stages of septic tanks with life cycle perspective. The article is the fi rst one to present results of potential environmental impact throughout the life cycle of septic tanks in urban wastewater system. Materials and methods Goal and scope of analysis The aim of the article was LCA of septic tanks from construction stage, through use stage to end-of-life stage, considering Polish conditions where septic tanks are one of elements of water and sewage management system. The basic function of the analyzed system is to neutralize sewage from a given area, through treating it before reintroducing into the environment. The area where the system operates includes an administrative unit with an urban agglomeration covering part of the area. A basic unit of the system function, i.e. a functional Fig. 1. Confi guration of sewage management system Archives vol 45 no 4 a4 srodki_kor 1.indd 69 2019-11-14 11:06:44 70 D. Burchart-Korol, P. Zawartka unit (FU), is population-equivalent (1 PE), which, is defi ned as load of biodegradable organic substances expressed as 5-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) of 60 g oxygen per day (Burchart-Korol and Zawartka 2019). The functional unit of the analysis is 1 PE as a parameter which is universal for each urban wastewater system considering its diversity. The study was performed for an operating system of collecting, transporting and treating sewage in the city of Żory, Poland; including the area of the agglomeration of Żory with wastewater treatment plant (WWTP Żory) located in the catchment area of the Ruda river. The system consists of septic tanks which were analyzed. The system was accepted as the reference for analyses due to: – importance of tanks in the system of collecting, transporting and treating sewage in Żory (793 pieces), – differences in location, technology (material) and age of septic tanks, – plans to expand the system due to the development of residential housing and manufacturing and service facilities and the need to provide information to decide the best confi guration of the system. At the end of 2015, in Żory there were 793 operating septic tanks: 567 concrete ones, 155 HDPE ones and 71 GRP ones (UM Żory 2016). Average capacity of a tank is 10 m3 which allows a typical household to collect sewage for a month. Septic tanks in Żory serve 2,379 PE and are located mainly in the suburbs, in scattered site housing area where there is no sewerage system. Sewage from the tanks is transported in vacuum tankers to Żory wastewater treatment plant (WWTP Żory). There is a full placement inventory of septic tanks in the city, which are placed mostly in a few districts. The distance between septic tanks and treatment plant has been set as an average length of way which vacuum tanker transports the waste to treatment plant and it does include the way to the septic tank and from septic tank to treatment plant. The most common real life scenario has been taken under account that vacuum tanker drives out from the treatment plant and comes back. The average distance between a tank and the plant is approximately 8 kilometers. The system boundaries for given life cycle stages of septic tanks are presented in Figure 2. Life cycle inventory For given life cycle stages of septic tanks, Life Cycle Inventory (LCI), necessary to conduct life cycle assessment, was performed. The main data sources were: – data from registers of septic tanks (amount, material, capacity, users, frequency of sewage disposal, data for sewage balance) obtained from the City Hall of Żory (UM Żory 2016), – data concerning use of the tanks (consumption of materials, fuels, energy to transport and treat sewage, qualitative and quantitative parameters of sewage) – obtained from the operator (PWiK Żory 2015), – data from manufacturers of the septic tanks, – research and own analysis data concerning construction and use of septic tanks. Data identifi cation and inventory concerned the whole life cycle of septic tanks. It was assumed that, in accordance with the facts, the EU’s and common practice in the water and sewerage sector, the objects are built for a life span of 30 years and within the period their operating as intended is guaranteed. Data inventory for the construction stage of septic tanks considers consumption of materials and resources and earthworks, both for the tank itself and a section of Ø160 PVC pipe transporting sewage from a building to a tank. The inventory stage of construction septic tanks included also the impact on the environment of assembly works and earthworks with the use of machinery and equipment (diggers, trucks), to perform excavations and the reuse of unnecessary excess of land near the construction site. The data inventory also employed own research associated with implementation of the Fig. 2. System boundaries of life cycle of septic tank Archives vol 45 no 4 a4 srodki_kor 1.indd 7

Somayeh Fakhimi Hosinzad, Yagoub Alavi Matin, Soleyman Iranzadeh

Improving the management of water resources on a global scale is critical at this time. The risks that water bodies are currently exposed to, whether due to climate change or human conditions, affect the availability and quality of water in watersheds around the world. However, water management has emerged as a complex problem. In this light, one of the most promising methods is the construction of dynamic simulation models that may include the largest possible number of variables, not just hydrological. This paper presents a decision support system for the integrated management of water distribution and wastewater collection networks. The proposed method uses system dynamics (simulation with Vensim software) to integrate water and sewage networks with financial and socio-political sectors, which allows the rate adjustment and planning of integrated operational and capital infrastructure of water and sewage in three provinces of the Tabriz region during their life cycle (50 years). The results show that the integrated framework enables the company to accelerate financing for capital and operational works and improve the level of integrated services due to the integration of financial resources of water and sewage. In practice, the proposed integrated framework empowers water and wastewater utilities to manage and plan their assets in an integrated approach to improve the infrastructural, financial, and socio-political performance of their water and wastewater assets compared to separate management. Physical asset management is the only way for water and sewage companies to solve financial, social and infrastructural problems. The sewerage network studied here needs a little more capital work to meet the deficit policy lever of very damaged pipes compared to the water distribution network, which is in a relatively better condition. Implementing a borrowing management strategy for the sewer network to accelerate capital work, a proactive management strategy for the water distribution network should be implemented with the necessary cash reserves for any future setbacks.

W. Bilal, L. I. Vohra, A. Sahito et al.

The surveillance of wastewater is the process of monitoring contaminants in wastewater. Biosurveillance, detection of pathogens in local populations, and detection of psychoactive drugs are some of its uses. In Pakistan, the wastewater that comes out of households and industries goes either directly into a sewer system, a natural drain or water body, a nearby field, or an internal septic tank [1]. There is no biological treatment process in most cities, except for Islamabad and Karachi, which treat only a small proportion (8%) of their wastewater before disposal [1]. Therefore, wastewater monitoring and treatment are essential to ensuring the health of multiple ecosystems. A majority of disease outbreaks that occur during the monsoons are water-related, significantly contaminated water. A lack of potable water during the monsoons, along with surface water contamination by flood or sewage, leads to most water-borne diseases. Due to the ravages of the monsoon on electricity supply, any electricity-driven water filtration system is rendered ineffective [2]. According to the WHO, water-related diseases kill more than 3.4 million people worldwide annually, making water contamination the world’s leading cause of disease and death [2]. Children are the majority of victims, and they typically die from illnesses caused by organisms that thrive in water contaminated with raw sewage [2]. Although Pakistan does not have a dedicated study facility for wastewater, various studies have reported numerous enterotoxins in Pakistani wastewaters. According to the study by Tanzeel Zohra et al., the presence of V. cholerae in wastewater might be concerning for possible cholera outbreaks in the nation. According to their study, the proportion of V. cholerae distribution varied by Pakistani province, with Balochistan having the greatest distribution (20%), followed by Punjab (16%), KPK (15%), and Sindh (11%) [3]. Transmission of the SARS-CoV-2 virus may also be related to water, sewage, and the dangers posed by the wastewater industry during the COVID-19 epidemic. According to studies, the monitoring of wastewater could be a useful early-warning tool for the spread of COVID-19 and other health threats. It is believed that SARS-CoV-2 enters wastewater through the stool of infected individuals and can survive in stools for up to 4 days [4,5]. The study by Salman Sharif et al. used current polio surveillance channels to investigate the presence of SARS-CoV2 in wastewater. The analysis revealed that COVID-19 was present in the sewage from 13 districts. As the prevalence of COVID-19 changes over time in different communities, wastewater testing is a novel and unique approach for monitoring it [5]. Even though wastewater surveillance in Pakistan has matured into an effective strategy for various outbreaks, it often comes with challenges. The major issues that need to be considered are accounting for short-term fluctuations in population density for a reflection of the population, the necessity for biomarker extraction technology for the complicated wastewater mixture, and inadequate analytical tools that cover the susceptible areas [6]. Researchers aren’t always familiar with how decisions are made in public health settings and have problems with data actionability and understanding [7]. Developing countries typically do an inconsiderable job of adequately treating fecal waste and wastewater, and in many situations, wastewater is simply released into lakes and rivers without any kind of treatment [8]. Because the majority of homes are not linked to sewerage networking, there are additional challenges with wastewater-based epidemiological tracking and monitoring of epidemics in the future [8]. Unfortunately, there is no unified system that generates statistics for the large number of inhabitants living in underdeveloped areas, making it unattainable to create and implement a legislative framework in developing nations like Pakistan [9]. The procedure of testing wastewater for pathogens is best discussed using SARS-CoV-2 as an example. People infected with SARS-CoV-2 can excrete viral RNA (viral genetic material), and this RNA can be found in communal wastewater [10]. As it flows into a treatment facility, wastewater from a sewershed (the community area served by a wastewater collecting system) is collected. SARS-CoV-2 testing is performed on the samples at environmental or public health laboratories. The presence of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater is detected in patients with and without symptoms. It is possible to detect infection in a community and determine if levels are increasing or decreasing by monitoring concentrations of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater using genomic sequencing [10]. The Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources (PCRWR) assesses the effects of domestic and industrial effluents in order to determine wastewater treatment needs [11]. Local governments in all nations are in charge of the actual implementation and operation of wastewater treatment and monitoring facilities. Academic/research organizations and the corporate sector are primarily responsible for sample analysis and the creation of technical solutions, including monitoring equipment [12]. PCRWR’s microbiological testing kit and arsenic testing kit for pathogenic and chemical surveillance are examples of such equipment [11]. Numerous government agencies, like the Pakistan Council of Research of Water Resources and Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency, are actively engaged in observing the effects of wastewater application on agricultural fields. These organizations promote research with financial and technical assistance in addition to studying the long-term effects of wastewater on soil characteristics. As a result, while developing a national platform for wastewater surveillance systems, it is necessary to include all authorities [12]. The government should ensure that the governance structure for wastewater surveillance systems is not only a stopgap solution, but rather serves as an early warning system for future pandemics. Virome analysis of wastewater, as demonstrated during the COVID-19 pandemic, could discover new viruses before they are clinically recognized in a population [13]. Public health experts are working on a pilot study in which

Javad Shafiee Neyestanak, Abbas Roozbahani, Seyyed Ebrahim Hashemi Garmdarreh

Urban treated wastewater is a useful resource for allocation to various non-potable reuses because its quantity and quality can be controlled and managed by humans, but it has its limitations. Improper use of these resources without treatment can lead to environmental and health risks and, as a result, can cause social dissatisfaction and sometimes economic problems. This paper examines the risks of limitations associated with the use of treated wastewater. Qualitative information of 26 wastewater treatment plants in the country was collected to create a proper database for risk assessment of using treated wastewater for agricultural and industrial application by taking into account the major factors such as environmental, socio-cultural, economic, and technical. For risks calculation, multiple risks associated with the use of treated wastewater were identified by reviewing various available publications and categorizing them according to the above four risk factors. Hierarchical networks were prepared to calculate the main and the overall risk. Bayesian networks were used to model risk-based structures. Bayesian relationships are causal and helpful in expressing the links of the nodes in a probabilistic way. Research results show that the risk of using treated urban wastewater in agricultural sector is generally higher than its application in industrial use, and hence it will make it more suitable and more acceptable for industrial use under current treatment. Bayesian risk-based agricultural and industrial structures were suitably modeled according to R2, RMSE, and MAPE indicators. The average values of the above indicators for the calibration of Bayesian model using treated wastewater in agricultural and industrial risked-based structure were 0.993, 0.202 and 0.637; 0.988, 0.980 and 2.731, respectively. From this study it can be concluded that Bayesian networks have a modeling capability in assessing the risk associated with the use of treated wastewater in agricultural and industrial sectors. The method presented in this paper can be used by the wastewater treatment plant managers and end users when assessing the potential risk of using treated effluent for agricultural and industrial applications.

Ali Nasirian, Mahdi Mollazadeh, Ali Valavi

The friction factor of pipes in water distribution networks is different from the laboratory values due to the connections, installation method and created bights. Passing of time, erosion and sedimentation in pipes are also factors affecting roughness. Therefore, the roughness of pipes should be calibrated during network modeling. In this research, a new optimization method, called sensitivity analysis method was introduced for roughness calibration. In this method, first the pipes are grouped based on the material and diameter of pipes. Then, using sensitivity analysis it is determined what the effect of changing the roughness of different groups on node pressures is. In the following, roughness calibration is performed according to the importance of the groups respectively. This method was investigated on a real network with assumed changes. In order to compare the efficiency of the present method, the results obtained were compared with the results obtained from the calibration tool of WaterGEMS software. Fitness that is obtained by present study method and output of WaterGEMS in studied network are 0.02 and 8.11 centimeters, respectively. Obtained results show the high ability of this method in pipes network roughness calibration.

Dina Zaman, M. Tiwari, Gopika Ashokan

Janhavi Gadkari, A. Shrivastav, S. Bhattacharya

Abstract Challenges on wastewater treatment are diversified and differ depending not only on legislations for effluent control but also on regional characteristics and socioeconomic conditions. Sewage sludge produced during wastewater treatment is excessive and needs to be appropriately treated. This wasted sludge is utilized or converted into 10% for application to agricultural lands; 13% for conversion into energy as a biogas, i.e., methane, by anaerobic digestion; 77% for disposal after dewatering, and incineration followed by landfill or without any appropriate treatment. Also, in a wastewater treatment facility, emission reduction is of importance. Sewerage utilities emit up to 7 million tons-CO2/year, accounting up to 0.5% of total CO2 emission. Not only CO2 but also nitrous oxide (N2O) emission warrants attention as a new target for mitigation. The current book chapter will focus on bioelectrochemical systems (BES) as a viable technology for production of bioelectricity and biohydrogen by integrating the options of biomass production and industrial effluent treatment. However, Microalgae-based bioelectrochemical systems also could be a viable technology for production of bioelectricity and biohydrogen by integrating the options of biomass production and industrial effluent treatment.

Maria J Millinga, S. Mkumbo, C. Kihampa

N. Khan, S. Khan, Sirajuddin Ahmed et al.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to cover some aspects about the disposal and regulatory standard around the world toward hospital effluent discharge, its managements and treatment technologies that are adopted and best suitable nowadays. Design/methodology/approach Due to large and variety of antibiotics available in the market nowadays it is difficult to control its use, thereby risking the whole ecosystem and its components. The regulation pattern is variable depending upon the various factors in different countries. The permissible limit of these emerging pollutants found in sewage as compared to in hospital effluent streams having active pharmaceutical ingredients is very narrow and is a debatable issue. Findings The disparity in the available legislation for hospital waste management in different countries makes it difficult to compare pro’s and con’s of methods adopted. Strict laws need to be framed for hospital wastewater management and its treatment, as it contains harmful compounds in higher concentrations resulting in development of resistant genes. The guideline applicable nowadays makes it clear that, specific management guidelines with respect to HWW, but also indicate certain characteristics that can be represented to specify their nature and indicator. Research limitations/implications Determination of effluent characteristic for each specialized treatment need to be analyzed for meeting the framed regulatory standards. Up-gradation of existing treatment facilities, adopting new technologies and improving operation, maintained is a viable option. As there are no specific treatment schemes available hence combination and optimization of treatment methods may solve the problem to certain extent. Practical implications There is some flexibility also there so that law framework can be modified accordingly. For any health facilities direct discharges into natural water bodies it effluent need to follow national discharge standards. These are quite strict as compared to indirect standards and generally not meet by such facilities. This is quite logical because they are not being monitored or treated by municipal systems. Social implications The law indicates that hospital needed to collect and treat effluent according to the treatment standards. But on other hand the law was made making it consideration about the HWW collection in water bodies. Originality/value The best way of management as described, is to treat HWW onsite-dividing into primary, secondary and tertiary. The document also provides details about sludge disposal, possible reuse, including the application of new and innovative treatment technologies for HWW. It also provides guidance for minimum approach for HWW management because developing countries patients do not have proper sanitation facilities.

Klaus Walter

Abstract More and more people live in big cities, today more than 50% of the world population. All these people have to deal with many things of daily life including food, water, energy, communication, and entertainment. Also, the disposal of garbage, sewage, or the growing traffic must be managed and organized while minimizing energy consumption and protect the environment. These activities require in the future a new kind of Internet of things sensor concepts and a stronger use of modern IT and communication technologies. This should lead to smart cities with innovative types of sensor data collection and processing systems which are able to make intelligent real-time decisions to manage assets and resources efficiently. There are many new tasks for state-of-the-art embedded systems within future sensors and measuring technology. Furthermore, we need a more and more obvious paradigm shift from centralized to decentralized, autonomous control with the goal of highly flexible environments and localized artificial intelligence.

Farzad Hashemzadeh, Amirhesam Hasani, Homayun Ahmad panahi et al.

Discharge of toxic metals such as cadmium (Cu), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn) in the environment can impact the quality of air and water.  High concentration of these toxic metals larger than the regulated concentration in the air and water can pose serious human health risks.  The aim of this research was to investigate the removal of these heavy metals (Cd, Pb and Zn) from aqueous solutions by using a multi walled carbon nanotubes modified by chitosan as an absorbent agent. To perform the experimental study, nitrate salt of heavy metals solution prepared with distilled water was used.  Factors examined for the removal efficiency of heavy metals in this study include pH, absorbent dose concentration, retention time, and the initial concentration of heavy metals. All analytical analyses were performed according to standard methods. Also, the infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) used for identification and modification of the absorbent. The results obtained from this study showed that an increase in pH, retention time and initial concentration of heavy metals, also increased the adsorption efficiency rate. The optimum heavy metals removal efficiency was about 75% and that occurred when pH =7, retention time =120 minutes and the initial concentration of heavy metals =20 mg/L. In addition, plot of Langmuir and Freundlich adsorption isotherms for heavy metals showed that the adsorption process mostly follows the Freundlich isotherm. The limited data obtained from this experimental sudy, it can be concluded that using carbon nanotubes modified with chitosan as an absorbant agent is an effective method for the removal of heavy metals (Cd, Pb, and Zn) from aqueous solutions.

Rasoul Rajabpour, Nasser Taleb Beidokhti, Gholamreza Rakhshanderoo

Recent decades have witnessed growing applications of metaheuristic techniques as efficient tools for solving complex engineering problems. One such method is the JPSO algorithm. In this study, innovative modifications were made in the nature of the jump algorithm JPSO to make it capable of coping with graph-based solutions, which led to the development of a new algorithm called ‘G-JPSO’. The new algorithm was then used to solve the Fletcher-Powell optimal control problem and its application to optimal control of pumps in water distribution networks was evaluated. Optimal control of pumps consists in an optimum operation timetable (on and off) for each of the pumps at the desired time interval. Maximum number of on and off positions for each pump was introduced into the objective function as a constraint such that not only would power consumption at each node be reduced but such problem requirements as the minimum pressure required at each node and minimum/maximum storage tank heights would be met. To determine the optimal operation of pumps, a model-based optimization-simulation algorithm was developed based on G-JPSO and JPSO algorithms. The model proposed by van Zyl was used to determine the optimal operation of the distribution network. Finally, the results obtained from the proposed algorithm were compared with those obtained from ant colony, genetic, and JPSO algorithms to show the robustness of the proposed algorithm in finding near-optimum solutions at reasonable computation costs.

S. Haydar, Junaid Masood