The article is devoted to a comprehensive analysis of the concept and types of property rights in private international law (PIL), focusing on the peculiarities of their regulation in the context of cross-border relations. Contemporary challenges, such as digital assets, complicate the application of traditional approaches to regulating property rights. The study explores the legal nature of property rights, their classification by objects (immovable property, movable property, intellectual property, and digital assets), and the conflict-of-law rules determining the applicable law. Particular attention is given to traditional principles, such as lex rei sitae for immovable property, lex loci actus and lex domicilii for movable property, and lex loci protectionis for intellectual property. The article separately analyzes modern challenges, particularly the regulation of digital assets (cryptocurrencies, NFTs), which lack a clear territorial connection, complicating the application of traditional conflict-of-law rules. The article examines the specifics of Ukrainian legislation, particularly the Law of Ukraine “On Private International Law” (Articles 65–66), and its inadequacy in addressing contemporary realities, such as the protection of property during wartime or the regulation of virtual assets. Issues related to the recognition of foreign judicial decisions, harmonization with EU regulations (Rome I and Brussels I bis Regulations), and insufficient adaptation to digital technologies create gaps in legal practice. Recommendations are proposed to improve legal regulation in Ukraine, including amendments to legislation to clarify the status of digital assets, unification of conflict-of-law rules, strengthening mechanisms for recognizing foreign decisions, and introducing judicial guidelines based on the case law of the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR). The necessity of harmonizing Ukrainian legislation with European standards to ensure legal certainty and investment attractiveness is emphasized. It is noted that the wartime situation in Ukraine complicates the application of lex rei sitae to property in temporarily occupied territories, necessitating exceptions based on international humanitarian law and ECHR practice. The conclusions highlight the importance of adapting PIL to new challenges, such as globalization, the digital economy, and armed conflicts, to ensure effective protection of property rights in cross-border relations.
A law in a multiagent system is a set of constraints imposed on agents' behaviours to avoid undesirable outcomes. The paper considers two types of laws: useful laws that, if followed, completely eliminate the undesirable outcomes and gap-free laws that guarantee that at least one agent can be held responsible each time an undesirable outcome occurs. In both cases, we study the problem of finding a law that achieves the desired result by imposing the minimum restrictions. We prove that, for both types of laws, the minimisation problem is NP-hard even in the simple case of one-shot concurrent interactions. We also show that the approximation algorithm for the vertex cover problem in hypergraphs could be used to efficiently approximate the minimum laws in both cases.
The connecting factor formula is a distinctive concept in private international law and serves as a universal rule for resolving conflicts of laws. This paper examines the influence and role of private international law theories in the formation and development of connecting factor formulas by analyzing different stages of doctrinal evolution and representative scholarly perspectives. The study aims to provide a theoretical foundation for understanding and applying these formulas.
The United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG) is the main uniform substantive regulation at international level, applicable to commercial sales with a foreign element, and, according to Art. 1, point 1, it becomes applicable when the parties are domiciled in different contracting states or when the rules of private international law lead to the application of the law of a contracting state. Since, in the case of legal relationships with a foreign element, the application of the substantive rules is usually subsequent to the conflict rules, the correlation between the provisions of the CISG and the rules of private international law (the conflict rules) is obvious in the second mentioned hypothesis. Instead, the situation is not as simple in the first hypothesis as long as the application of the provisions of the CISG no longer presupposes the prior incidence of the conflict rules. Starting from this observation, the present scientific approach aims to qualify the provisions of the CISG in order to place them in the mechanism for determining the applicable law established by the rules of private international law. The research has as its starting point the rules of Romanian private international law, but its conclusions have the vocation to be extended to other legal systems that embrace the same legal concepts.
This contribution will analyze the significance and legacy of Next Generation EU (NGEU). It will start by providing a snapshot of the state of the EU's Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) before the pandemic struck in 2020. It will then map out NGEU's likely legacy, arguing that NGEU may change the way the EU raises and spends revenues in the future. The essay will finish by reflecting on how NGEU may change our interpretation of important elements of EMU and affect the ongoing debate about the future of fiscal integration within the EU.
Comparative law. International uniform law, Private international law. Conflict of laws
In this paper, we investigate the fundamental laws of quantum programming. We extend a comprehensive set of Hoare et al.'s basic laws of classical programming to the quantum setting. These laws characterise the algebraic properties of quantum programs, such as the distributivity of sequential composition over (quantum) if-statements and the unfolding of nested (quantum) if-statements. At the same time, we clarify some subtle differences between certain laws of classical programming and their quantum counterparts. Additionally, we derive a fixpoint characterisation of quantum while-loops and a loop-based realisation of tail recursion in quantum programming. Furthermore, we establish two normal form theorems: one for quantum circuits and one for finite quantum programs. The theory in which these laws are established is formalised in the Coq proof assistant, and all of these laws are mechanically verified. As an application case of our laws, we present a formal derivation of the principle of deferred measurements in dynamic quantum circuits. We expect that these laws can be utilised in correctness-preserving transformation, compilation, and automatic code optimisation in quantum programming. In particular, because these laws are formally verified in Coq, they can be confidently applied in quantum program development.
The European Union is proceeding with a process of dismantling the mechanisms which, not without many difficulties, had managed to achieve a certain level of legal protection for people on the move. This progressive lack of protection is taking place both in terms of the rights that people have once they have managed to settle in one way or another in one of the countries that make up the European Union and, even more notoriously, in terms of the rights of people who are in the process of entering, in the same attempt to enter or once inside as applicants for international protection. The present text analyzes one of the main expressions of this process, which is that of pushbacks and its attempt at legal validation, taking into account the jurisprudence of the Strasbourg Court and its implications in the Spanish context.
Access to online data has long been important for law enforcement agencies in their collection of electronic evidence and investigation of crimes. These activities have also long involved cross-border investigations and international cooperation between agencies and jurisdictions. However, technological advances such as cloud computing have complicated the investigations and cooperation arrangements. Therefore, several new laws have been passed and proposed both in the United States and the European Union for facilitating cross-border crime investigations in the context of cloud computing. These new laws and proposals have also brought many new legal challenges and controversies regarding extraterritoriality, data protection, privacy, and surveillance. With these challenges in mind and with a focus on Europe, this paper reviews the recent trends and policy initiatives for cross-border data access by law enforcement agencies.
Whitney T. Powers, Evan H. Anders, Benjamin P. Brown
In stars and planets natural processes heat convective flows in the bulk of a convective region rather than at hard boundaries. By characterizing how convective dynamics are determined by the strength of an internal heating source we can gain insight into the processes driving astrophysical convection. Internally heated convection has been studied extensively in incompressible fluids, but the effects of stratification and compressibility have not been examined in detail. In this work, we study fully compressible convection driven by a spatially uniform heating source in 2D and 3D Cartesian, hydrodynamic simulations. We use a fixed temperature upper boundary condition which results in a system that is internally heated in the bulk and cooled at the top. We find that the flow speed, as measured by the Mach number, and turbulence, as measured by the Reynolds number, can be independently controlled by separately varying the characteristic temperature gradient from internal heating and the diffusivities. 2D simulations at a fixed Mach number (flow speed) demonstrate consistent power at low wavenumber as diffusivities are decreased. We observe convection where the velocity distribution is skewed towards cold, fast downflows, and that the flow speed is related to the length scale and entropy gradient of the upper boundary where the downflows are driven. We additionally find a heat transport scaling law which is consistent with prior incompressible work.
We demonstrate the emergence of scaling laws in the benchmark top versus QCD jet classification problem in collider physics. Six distinct physically-motivated classifiers exhibit power-law scaling of the binary cross-entropy test loss as a function of training set size, with distinct power law indices. This result highlights the importance of comparing classifiers as a function of dataset size rather than for a fixed training set, as the optimal classifier may change considerably as the dataset is scaled up. We speculate on the interpretation of our results in terms of previous models of scaling laws observed in natural language and image datasets.
Peter Henderson, Mark S. Krass, Lucia Zheng
et al.
One concern with the rise of large language models lies with their potential for significant harm, particularly from pretraining on biased, obscene, copyrighted, and private information. Emerging ethical approaches have attempted to filter pretraining material, but such approaches have been ad hoc and failed to take context into account. We offer an approach to filtering grounded in law, which has directly addressed the tradeoffs in filtering material. First, we gather and make available the Pile of Law, a 256GB (and growing) dataset of open-source English-language legal and administrative data, covering court opinions, contracts, administrative rules, and legislative records. Pretraining on the Pile of Law may help with legal tasks that have the promise to improve access to justice. Second, we distill the legal norms that governments have developed to constrain the inclusion of toxic or private content into actionable lessons for researchers and discuss how our dataset reflects these norms. Third, we show how the Pile of Law offers researchers the opportunity to learn such filtering rules directly from the data, providing an exciting new research direction in model-based processing.
The landscape of privacy laws and regulations around the world is complex and ever-changing. National and super-national laws, agreements, decrees, and other government-issued rules form a patchwork that companies must follow to operate internationally. To examine the status and evolution of this patchwork, we introduce the Government Privacy Instructions Corpus, or GPI Corpus, of 1,043 privacy laws, regulations, and guidelines, covering 182 jurisdictions. This corpus enables a large-scale quantitative and qualitative examination of legal foci on privacy. We examine the temporal distribution of when GPIs were created and illustrate the dramatic increase in privacy legislation over the past 50 years, although a finer-grained examination reveals that the rate of increase varies depending on the personal data types that GPIs address. Our exploration also demonstrates that most privacy laws respectively address relatively few personal data types, showing that comprehensive privacy legislation remains rare. Additionally, topic modeling results show the prevalence of common themes in GPIs, such as finance, healthcare, and telecommunications. Finally, we release the corpus to the research community to promote further study.
The public water supply and sewerage service includes the totality of activities of public utility and general economic and social interest carried out for the purpose of the collection, treatment, transportation, storage and distribution of drinking water on the territory of the administrative-territorial unit, as well as for the purpose of the collection and purification of wastewater. This service is regulated, in particular, by the Law on public water supply and sewerage service No. 303/2013. The object of the law represents the creation of the legal framework for the establishment, organization, operation, regulation and monitoring of the public drinking water supply and sewerage service in the conditions of accessibility, availability, reliability, continuity, competitiveness, transparency, respecting quality, safety and environmental protection. Everything that exceeds these activities is not subject to the regulation of the Law No. 303/2013. And the application of the “share” is an illegal activity that is punishable in accordance with the legislation in force.
Private international law. Conflict of laws, Jurisprudence. Philosophy and theory of law
Propagation is one of the things imaginable about property. In this case, instead of the ownership of the property in general, it belongs to one person, two or more persons own the property. In the case of distribution, the ownership of the partners is in all components, so that each part of the property that is considered is shared by all partners, and no partner can have any exclusive claim against the part of the property. The question is, does one of the partners have the right to rent the property to another? There are two general points in this regard and it is accepted in Iran's law following the famous jurisprudence of the Imams. There is also a controversy in Egyptian law, but in the end, the rights of this country, with a decree, have been passed to the acceptance of the theory of the rentier rentals Is. However, both in the doctrine and in the judicial system of the country, there are sometimes opposing views on the inaccuracy of mortgage lease. In the present article, the concept of hire-rent, the basics of admission, has been investigated.
Pedro L. Ramos, Luciano da F. Costa, Francisco Louzada
et al.
The Roman Empire shaped Western civilization, and many Roman principles are embodied in modern institutions. Although its political institutions proved both resilient and adaptable, allowing it to incorporate diverse populations, the Empire suffered from many internal conflicts. Indeed, most emperors died violently, from assassination, suicide, or in battle. These internal conflicts produced patterns in the length of time that can be identified by statistical analysis. In this paper, we study the underlying patterns associated with the reign of the Roman emperors by using statistical tools of survival data analysis. We consider all the 175 Roman emperors and propose a new power-law model with change points to predict the time-to-violent-death of the Roman emperors. This model encompasses data in the presence of censoring and long-term survivors, providing more accurate predictions than previous models. Our results show that power-law distributions can also occur in survival data, as verified in other data types from natural and artificial systems, reinforcing the ubiquity of power law distributions. The generality of our approach paves the way to further related investigations not only in other ancient civilizations but also in applications in engineering and medicine.
В статье раскрыты и проанализированы дефиниции кадастровой стоимости, регламентированные действующим законодательством Российской Федерации, а также
предложенные авторами, изучающими проблемы определения данной величины. Автором
определены сферы влияния кадастровой стоимости в гражданском праве. Рассмотрены
примеры платежей и нормативно – правовых актов их регламентирующих, размер которых зависит от величины кадастровой стоимости. Также автором затронуты вопросы
справедливости установления кадастровой стоимости объекта недвижимости.
Jurisprudence. Philosophy and theory of law, Civil law
حضور بازیگرانی غیر از دولتها در نظم نوین جهانی، تهدیدها و فرصتهای بسیاری را فراروی جوامع بشری و حقوق این جوامع قرار داده است. مقررات حقوق بشردوستانه عمدتاً بر پایه تقسیمات سیاسی و جغرافیایی کشورها بنا گذاشته شده است و همین امر، توصیف درگیریهای فرامرزی بازیگران غیردولتی و واکنشهای کشورهای خارجی در قلمرو دیگر کشورها را با مشکل مواجه میکند. در واقع چالش اصلی، نزاعهای مسلحانه است که یک دولت در سرزمین تحت حاکمیت دولتی دیگر انجام میدهد. در نبود توصیفی روشن از این وضعیت، تعیین حقوق قابل اعمال میسر نخواهد بود. علاوه بر این، اجرای حقها و تکالیف حقوق بشردوستانه بینالمللی در مورد گروههای مسلح فراملی نیز با توجه به وضعیت خاص آنها با مشکلاتی همراه است. اقدامات نظامی فراسرزمینی دولتها در مقابله با گروههای مسلح غیردولتی، برخی حقوقدانان و سیاستمداران را بر آن داشته تا از خلأ یا بیکفایتی حقوق مخاصمات مسلّحانه فعلی سخن گفته و با بیتوجهی نسبت به مقررات موجود، مرزهای بینالمللی را درنوردند.
Edward D. Lee, Bryan C. Daniels, Christopher R. Myers
et al.
Armed conflict exhibits regularities beyond known power law distributions of fatalities and duration over varying culture and geography. We systematically cluster conflict reports from a database of $10^5$ events from Africa spanning 20 years into conflict avalanches. Conflict profiles collapse over a range of scales. Duration, diameter, extent, fatalities, and report totals satisfy mutually consistent scaling relations captured with a model combining geographic spread and local conflict-site growth. The emergence of such social scaling laws hints at principles guiding conflict evolution.
Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa (the BRICS) have emerged as a new hub of power in international relations. They have begun to speak out jointly on a wide range of issues and to explore cooperating collectively. For instance, they strongly urge the Bretton Woods institutions to address their legitimacy deficits by transferring substantial voting power to emerging powers, and suggest that failure to do so will “run the risk of seeing [those institutions] fade into obsolescence.” The investment treaty regime may be another field in which they can exert influence, but the investment treaty policies of BRICS countries are diverging now more than ever. In particular, India and South Africa have taken significant measures, such as terminating investment treaties, that cast doubt on whether the BRICS can play a collective role in reforming such treaties. In this essay, I make two arguments. First, the recent investment treaty policies of some BRICS (India, South Africa, and to some extent Brazil) have shifted from one imbalanced approach that is too protective of foreign investors to another that is too protective of host states and is likely to be rejected by major powers such as the European Union, the United States, and China. Second, the BRICS together have the ability to craft approaches to investment treaties that encourage greater balance in the regime overall, including by remedying some of the defects inherent in the traditional investment treaties.
Comparative law. International uniform law, Private international law. Conflict of laws