Strategic ambiguity is often seen as a short-term adjustment by smaller states facing great-power rivalry. In Serbia, however, it has evolved into a stable governing strategy within the framework of European Union accession. Drawing on hedging, omnibalancing, and ontological security, this article explains how foreign policy choices are shaped by concerns about regime stability, asymmetric economic dependence, and competing identity narratives. Based on a qualitative case study combining content analysis, discourse analysis, and process tracing of key decisions, the study shows that Serbia uses strategic ambiguity to manage domestic political pressures, pace international commitments, and navigate its complex relationships with the European Union, Russia, and China, selectively complying with EU accession requirements when politically or strategically advantageous.
This methodological article explores “the local” as a distinct context for political theorizing, and considers its role in normative labor. In doing so, we examine how political theorists can “go local”; arguing that engagement with the local dimension of politics can play at least three distinct roles in political theorizing. First, the local can represent a distinct object of analysis, where local politics are the starting point for the construction and revision of normative theories. Second, the local can represent a distinct object of normative concern, where political theorists consider whether local actors, institutions, experiences, relationships, and ways of life carry specific normative values or normative obligations. Finally, the local can represent a distinct object of application, where political theorists apply normative insights to help interpret, and inform, real-world local politics. By drawing upon normative literature interested in local questions we demonstrate how such interest in the local dimension supports a more nuanced and comprehensive theoretical understanding of our complex and multidimensional political world.
This article analyzes the evolution of institutional reforms in the public administration system of the Republic of Armenia since its independence in 1991. In this context, it is taken into account that only the state is able to ensure the co-evolution of management technologies to achieve global goals and strategic objectives of the development of Armenian society. Technological dominants of political transformations, social and economic development require appropriate management adaptation, which is the focus of this study is the correct development and application of the functionality of decision support systems. Therefore, this study considers four stages of reforms: 1) Initial institutional creation from 1991 to 1999; 2) Formalization and adoption of Western governance models from 2000 to 2008; 3) European integration and administrative modernization from 2009 to 2017; 4) Political transformation accompanied by renewed administrative reforms since 2018. These reforms reflect a complex interplay of historical legacies, external influences, and internal aspirations for public administration modernization. Issues such as institutional inertia, limited localization of imported models, and political resistance are assessed in detail. In addition, the article compares these historical reforms with Armenia’s long-term goals outlined in the Public Administration Reform Strategy of the Republic of Armenia until 2030, emphasizing the transition from imitation reforms to sustainable institutional transformation.
Political science (General), Political institutions and public administration (General)
In the last decades, during the unfolding of momentous events, we saw the growing awareness of the need for a transition to a sustainable economy. The radical economic and social change will require the mobilization of colossal resources, and hence the alignment of the financial system to this goal. Climate change also affects the functions of central banks. First of all, it can affect macroeconomic conditions, forcing a different approach to monetary policy and financial stability. Secondly, it affects the risks of banks and other financial intermediaries, thus financial supervision. Finally, the transition also affects the payment system. In this work, we will try to sum up the main topics concerning the links between central banks, the transition, and the possible objections to them. We conclude that an efficient transition requires that the financial markets business model become sustainable, a goal that becomes more difficult in the new geo-political situation.
The text of C. Schmitt’s “Political Theology” was published in 1922, when the actual fall of the Weimar Republic provoked the beginning of the ideological struggle of German intellectuals the result of which was the rise of national socialism. In connection with this, "Political Theology" is rightfully considered an actual scientific representation of the history of Germany in the twentieth century, and his theory of sovereignty and sovereignty represents a conditioned choice of the country in favor of national socialism. Unlike most theologians of the 20th century, Schmitt considers political theology as a methodological approach with which it is possible to reconstruct the corresponding (to a particular historical period) picture of the world, using the similarity between metaphysical and state-legal concepts as the basis for such reconstruction. The key concept confirming this similarity is the concept of sovereign, which is historically and legally associated with the concept of absolute power. The author of the article focuses on the multiplicity of interpretations (from purely positive to extremely negative) offered by Schmitt's supporters and opponents regarding his understanding of political theology in general and absolute power in particular. The basis for putting forward a number of critical arguments against Schmitt's political theology is the recognition of its methodological inconsistency, which is explained by the lack of any evidence on the part of its author regarding the identity between theological and state-legal concepts. As a result, political theology is often used as an orthodox rhetorical practice, which leads to direct, non-critical borrowing of religious concepts by modern political leaders.
Archaeology, Law in general. Comparative and uniform law. Jurisprudence
Phi-Hung Nguyen, Lan-Anh Thi Nguyen, The-Vu Pham
et al.
Non-traditional security (NTS) threats have a vast and profound impact on many aspects of economic, political, social, and many other areas, especially supply chain finance (SCF), particularly in countries like Vietnam, which potentially affects the economic efficiency of businesses' supply chain financial, thereby affecting the general economy of the country and the world. In order to prevent and minimize the negative impacts caused by NTS threats to SCF, this study was conducted to identify NTS threats affecting SCF in Vietnam, at the same time calculate the weight of the impact level and find out the cause and effect relationship between them. Solution strategies are also proposed and ranked, thereby serving as a reference basis for relevant parties to choose appropriate response solutions. Due to the multi-criteria nature of NTS threats, the multiple criteria decision-making (MCDM) method is used in combination with the Z-number concept and Fuzzy set theory to approach the problem of certainty and increase the accuracy of study. The NTS threats are first identified through a literature review and then validated for suitability using the DELPHI technique (DELPHI). Suitable threats will be determined by relationship, weighted by Decision Making Trial And Evaluation Laboratory (DEMATEL) method. Proposed strategies are ranked using the Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) method. The results indicate that there are 19 NTS factors affecting SCF in Vietnam, and the global economic downturn, pandemic and health crisis, financial crisis and cybersecurity risk are the four root cause factors with the most decisive influence. Businesses and concerns need to prioritize addressing these four threats because they not only have a strong impact but also entail many other threats. The two strategies considered to be the most effective are a sustainable practice and a risk-hedging strategy. Businesses, governments, and stakeholders also should pay attention to the macroeconomic environment, technology, and environment and build sustainable businesses, regularly monitoring economic fluctuations and creating plans to prevent risks.
Introduction
Nonprofit sports organisations are valuable sports providers in most European countries. In 2017, there were over 60 million European active sports club members (Nagel et al., 2020). Through the consumption behaviour of this great number of people practicing sports, sport might have a negative impact on the environment (McCullough et al., 2020). Therefore, national sports federations (NSFs), overarching the sports clubs and engaging in sports policy issues, could be crucial when it comes to taking measures concerning the environmental sustainability of sports. Indeed, several NSFs have already launched programmes for environmental sustainability (e.g. Swiss Hang- and Paragliding Association [SHV]). This might be somehow surprising, since the nonprofit organised sport is traditionally primarily committed to the interests of its members and the sport as its core business (Thiel & Mayer, 2009). Thus, the following study addresses the questions, to what extend policies of environmental sustainability appear on the agendas of NSFs and which driving factors are relevant for its agenda setting, formulation and subsequent decision making. Knowledge about those processes is especially important since they are prerequisites for the implementation of environmental policies.
Literature review and theoretical background
Concerning nonprofit sports organisations and sustainable development, especially the field of social sustainability (e.g. Nagel et al., 2020) has been widely researched. Environmental sustainability however has only limitedly been analysed in this context. Describing the current state of commitment of NSFs to environmental sustainability, it has been found that Belgian NSFs show a rather low commitment, whereas low-intensity initiatives (e.g. recycling of sport equipment) constitute the majority of the identified actions (Hugaerts et al., 2022). The same pattern could be shown in Scandinavia. Sandvik and Seippel (2022) explain this partly with the absence of NSFs’ perceived urgence of environmental problems with direct consequences for the associations’ activities and the lack of institutional pressures. However, so far, there is hardly any knowledge about which factors are relevant for environmental policies being set on NSFs’ agendas, formulated, and decided upon, even though those processes are important as they precede the actual implementation of policies.
Considering agenda setting, policy formulation and decision making processes, this study is based on the Multiple Streams Approach with two coupling phases (MSA) of Herweg et al. (2015). For “an ideas’ time to come”, the approach identifies the coupling of three different processes as important. Policies arise, when issues are perceived as problematic (problem stream; e.g. image issues) and depend on the political context of the policy and agenda (political stream, e.g. composition of board). The policy stream contains existing ideas and enables the survival of certain ideas (e.g. idea of developing a climate strategy). Finally, policy entrepreneurs’ agency is necessary to couple the streams and create agenda windows, which allow items to rise onto the decision agenda. In a following second phase, the re-coupling of the same streams and engagement of policy entrepreneurs enables policies to be formulated, decided upon, and eventually be implemented.
Methods
To observe those processes, we decided to conduct an in-depth qualitative case study with a NSF, that has recently discussed, formulated, and decided upon environmental policies. Since the hang- and paragliding sport is depending on a natural environment affected by climate change, the SHV seemed to be an interesting case for our study, where such processes might already have taken place. The association is committed to the interests and sustainable practice of free flight. It has 112 club and 20,000 individual members, maintains an office with 14 employees and is headed by a board of directors, currently with seven members.
Document- and archive entries allowed us a first overview of existing measures of environmental sustainability and the appearance of the topic on the NSF’s agenda. We conducted semi-structured expert interviews with six decision makers of the SHV and with a representative of the umbrella organisation of the Swiss sports system to gain a deeper understanding of the agenda setting, formulation and decision making of environmental policies in the SHV. We then applied causation coding (Miles et al., 2020) to analyse the data, considering a data-led as well as a theory-based coding process along the concept of the MSA.
Findings
The SHV's commitment to environmental sustainability is based primarily on two pillars: the protection of biodiversity and access to nature on one hand and climate commitment on the other. Whereas voluntary agreements about wildlife rest areas have been made since 1995, climate protection policies are broadly discussed as a part of the strategy and implemented on an operative basis in different departments since the creation of the position of an environmental officer in 2017.
If not forced by external political pressure (e.g. flight restrictions), the agenda setting of environmental sustainability (e.g. climate commitment) in the SHV seems to be pushed primarily by the engagement of individual policy entrepreneurs. Policy entrepreneurs thereby mainly highlight the importance of addressing the issue to ensure the long-term survival of the sport and the association (problem stream). The perceived member interests seem to be able to facilitate or impede the agenda setting of the topic (political stream). Nevertheless, members do not appear to be the central entrepreneurs when it comes to actively promoting policies of environmental sustainability onto the agenda. The ideas for such policies rather seem to be found in the practice of similar other NSFs (policy stream).
The board of management seems to be less crucial for this process of agenda setting. When it comes to formulation and decision making however, the importance of the board of management is structurally implied. Even though the General Assembly approves amendments and the management of the board, the latter issues directives. Since members of the board do not yet seem to have the necessary knowledge about environmental sustainability to feel competent enough to make the required decisions, thorough information provided by the environmental officers appears to be important. Actors of the association describe policy formulation as a long process, where, in order to make the members of the board feel comfortable enough to make decisions, policies of environmental sustainability “must become a topic first over time”. When it comes to decision making about environmental policies, the (political) background of the members of the board are crucial and can promote or hinder certain decisions. Nevertheless, after getting enough information, suggestions from the administrative office are mostly accepted.
Discussion
Therefore, engaged policy entrepreneurs seem to be crucial for agenda setting, formulation and, through the impact of their suggestions, decision making processes of environmental policies in the SHV. Policy entrepreneurs do show engagement for their favoured policies even if they are not responsible for that specific topic in the association, but the structural implication of positions in connection with sport- and socio-political developments can additionally promote environmental policies. Even though the agenda setting of such policies does not seem to be a bottom-up process, consistent with the understanding of NSFs as interest-oriented organisations, perceived member interests are central in all three processes. Thereby functional objectives (e.g. enabling sport) are predominant to normative reasons (e.g. environmental responsibility). Furthermore, there seem to be processes that might be explained by the concept of mimetic isomorphism (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983), i.e. the orientation towards practices of similar NSFs in order to gain legitimacy.
This pilot study allows an in-depth investigation and enables a first review of the used theoretical and methodological approach. It identifies crucial factors when promoting the agenda setting, formulation and decision making for environmental sustainability in NSFs and utilising the potential of the nonprofit organised sports setting and its leverage in society. It is presented as part of a broader follow-up multiple case study with eight NSFs and a cross-case comparison. Further research must be conducted to allow statements about other types of NSFs (e.g. other types of professionalisation, indoor sports) and further stages of the policy cycle, i.e. the implementation of the policies.
References
DiMaggio, P. J., & Powell, W. W. (1983). The iron cage revisited: Institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields. American Sociological Review, 48(2), 147–160.
Herweg, N., Huss, C., & Zohlnhöfer, R. (2015). Straightening the three streams: Theorising extensions of the multiple streams framework. European Journal of Political Research, 54(3), 435–449. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6765.12089
Hugaerts, I., Scheerder, J., Zeimers, G., Corthouts, J., van de Sype, C., & Könecke, T. (2022). Are sport organisations environmentally sustainable? A website analysis of sport federations in Belgium. European Sport Management Quarterly. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/16184742.2022.2093391
McCullough, B. P., Orr, M., & Watanabe, N. M. (2020). Measuring externalities: The imperative next step to sustainability assessment in sport. Journal of Sport Management, 34(5), 393–402. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.2019-0254
Miles, M. B., Huberman, A. M., & Saldaña, J. (2020). Qualitative data analysis: A methods sourcebook (4th ed.). SAGE.
Nagel, S., Elmose-Østerlund, K., Ibsen, B., & Scheerder, J. (Eds.). (2020). Functions of Sports Clubs in European Societies: A Cross-National Comparative Study. Springer.
Sandvik, M. R., & Seippel, Ø. (2022). Framing of environmental issues in voluntary sport organizations. Environmental Politics. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/09644016.2022.2075152
Thiel, A., & Mayer, J. (2009). Characteristics of voluntary sports clubs management: A sociological perspective. European Sport Management Quarterly, 9(1), 81-98. https://doi.org/10.1080/16184740802461744