This paper deals with non-standard (substandard) linguistic units in Russian speech and their description in existing dictionaries of standard Russian, e. g. the word tselka ‘hymen; virgin (girl)’ and such words as bliad’, blia and blin in their interjectional and parenthetical use. It makes use of corpus data (in particular, data from the Russian National Corpus) and shows that their lexicographic descriptions often do not account for their use in speech. The paper makes special reference to lexical units that have both standard and non-standard meanings. In particular, it discusses the meaning and usage of the Russian verbs dat’ / davat’, konchit’ / konchat’, trakhnut’ / trakhat’, and trakhnut’sia / trakhat’sia. Non-standard meanings of these units have only recently received lexicographic descriptions. All these words deserve a thorough semantic and syntactic analysis (in particular, their government patterns should be carefully studied for each particular lexical meaning). The relation between standard and non-standard readings is idiosyncratic in each case and also should be taken into account. The paper aims to show that the descriptions of the words under consideration (not only descriptions of their nonstandard meanings but descriptions of their standard meanings as well) in existing dictionaries often require revision. It outlines ways of improving their lexicographic descriptions.
Liudmila Grigoryevna Babenko, Maria Vladimirovna Dudorova
The purpose of the article is to examine the ideographic dictionaries created by the lexicographers of the Ural Semantic School from the dynamic aspect, according to which the Ural ideographic lexicography was formed as an independent direction. In total, the group has published 26 ideographic dictionaries of different semantic and grammatical nature of words: verbs, nouns, adjectives, synonyms of the Russian language and Russian speech, synonymic-antonymic complexes, Russian verb sentences, Russian key concepts. The methodological basis of such dictionaries were the basic provisions of the main scholarly paradigms of the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries: structural-semantic, functional-semantic, denotative-ideographic, cognitive-discursive. In turn, a new type of active ideographic dictionaries contributed to the formation of a system of basic theoretical positions that formed the conceptual lexicographic base of ideographic dictionaries. The universal theoretical foundations of linguistic construction represent the following fundamental principles: consistency, hierarchy, invariance/variability, the presence of standard semantics, representativeness of identifiers, etc., the implementation of which is modified and corrected in the structure of various ideographic dictionaries and supplemented with new relevant lexicographic parameters of their construction, which determines the conceptual uniqueness of each individual dictionary. The peculiarities of such dictionaries and their ideographic sets are determined by the semantic-grammatical and linguo-cognitive nature of the units that make up their composition and the specifics of their constituent sets of units: lexical-semantic, functional-semantic and functional-syntactic, cognitive-discursive. As a result of the study, the authors identify the main types of lexical sets in the composition of ideographic dictionaries of different types.
History (General) and history of Europe, Language and Literature
This article aims to provide a first edition of an unpublished medical recipe book included in ms. Bergamo, Biblioteca civica “Angelo Mai”, MA 400 (ff. 66r-98v). The text, mainly written in fifteenth century venetian variety with a small presence of Latin, is intended to implement the medical repertories now available in corpora and placeable in the Veneto region, such as Corpus ReMediA (http://remediaweb.ovi.cnr.it/) and Corpus VEV (http://vevweb.ovi.cnr.it/).
The author provides an integral edition of the medical text accompanied by lexicographical and philological notes and a brief linguistic analysis.
Unconventional phraseological replies such as No, I’m expensive in response to the question Are you free? are a subtype of phraseological replies. Such phraseological replies are an inappropriate, usually humorous or absurd, response to a statement (the stimulus). So far, no extensive research on this type of expression has been found for Germanic and Romance languages with the exception of Norrick [1984, 1993, 2007] and a few English examples mentioned by Čermák [2007: 433] in the English chapter of his monograph. Humorous phraseological replies have been most systematically studied by Bondarenko [2009], who has also presented a dictionary of such expressions in Russian [Bondarenko 2013]. This type of phraseme has been called a humorous answer [Permyakov 1988: 89], intersubjective phraseme (Čermák [2007: 441]), answer formula (Dobrovol’skiy & Baranov [2003]), and dialogue idiom (Khairov [2019]). The use of these kinds of phrasemes is characteristic above all of private communication and spoken language (Dobrovol’skiy & Baranov [2003: 39-40]; Bondarenko [2009: 644]; Meterc & Pallay [2019: 171]). This makes it all the more important to carefully study the (relatively rare) examples of their use in written communication, which includes internet memes. The article analyzes the example of Leslie Nielson’s line “I am serious. And don’t call me Shirley”, which was originally a quote from the film Airplane! [1980]. The coinage of this unconventional phraseological reply is placed in the context of the particular manner in which the many gags in this film were created, described by the directors in an interview. The mechanisms for generating some of the gags in this film are compared with the typical mechanisms for establishing a link between the stimulus and the phraseological reply known so far from phraseological research (Bondarenko [2009]; Khairov [2019]; Meterc & Pallay [2019]). The article analyzes modifications of the original (cinematic) situation and the puns associated with this phraseological reply in the internet memes. It also discusses the use of this reply in some scenes from series The Office [2005-2013], showing further propagation of this phraseme with new propagating agents.
The transition zones between traditional word classes cause problems in lexicography. This research addresses the issue of estimating the level of adjectivization in Estonian by proposing a set of close-context indicators (“test patterns”) based on the existing literature and detectable in annotated corpus text. The profile of prototypical adjectives (the “reference profile”) is established by analyzing the normalized frequencies of the test patterns in a random sample of validated adjectives (N = 100). A scale of similarity to the reference profile is established by using the method of calculating Euclidean distances, which is considered a heuristic of the cumulative similarity vs. the difference. As a result, the scalar nature of the similarity to the reference profile is revealed, among both validated adjectives and the control group of yet underspecified lexicographic headword candidates (N = 100). The results are discussed in respect to improving the toolbox of the test patterns as well as in respect to future studies on some intriguing features of the actual corpus behavior of adjectives as compared to what would be expected by their morphosyntactic potential described in the literature.
***
Eesti keele prototüüpse adjektiivi morfosüntaktilise korpusprofiili jälil
Sõnavara kategoriseerimisel sõnaliikidesse valmistavad leksikograafias probleeme ennekõike üleminuekualad. Üks peamisi murekohti on raskus määratleda seejuures verbi ja adjektiivi vahelist piiri (Paulsen jt 2019, Paulsen jt 2020). Siinses uurimuses vaatleme partitsiipide adjektiviseerumisprotsesse korpusstatistika andmetele tuginedes. Lähenemine põhineb teoreetilisel eeldusel, et mistahes nähtusi kategoriseerivad inimesed alateadlikult liikmete sarnasust n-ö prototüüpsele esindajale ehk kategooria keskmele hinnates. See toob kaasa, et kategooria liikmed võivad olla selle prototüübiga kas rohkem või vähem sarnased; kategooria perifeerses osas võivad liikmed kuuluda juba ka mingisse naaberkategooriasse.
Adjektiividele omaste joonte väljaselgitamiseks korpuses kasutame testmustrite sarja, millest igaüks haarab potentsiaalse adjektiivi lähikonteksti. Kuus testmustrit põhinevad adjektiivide omadustel, mis on kirjanduses esile toodud ning ka eelmärgendatud korpusetekstides tuvastatavad. Kolm mustrit mõõdavad testsõna esinemist atribuudi rollis – eestäiendina üldiselt ning kahes kitsendatud positsioonis: ühilduvana põhisõnaga käändes ja arvus ning teiseks paiknevana lause alguses. Veel kätkesid mustrid esinemist keskvõrde vormis, laiendatavust vahetult eelneva adverbiga ning esinemist öeldistäitena st olema verbi jätkuna.
Prototüüpse adjektiivi korpuskäitumise profiil selgitati välja sajast sõnast koosneva juhuvalimi põhjal „Eesti keele põhisõnavara sõnastiku” adjektiividest. Kontrollrühm (N = 100) moodustati Eesti Keele Instituudi sõnastikubaasis Ekilex (Hein jt 2020) leiduvast sõnaliigimärgendita partitsiibist samuti juhuvalimina, silmas pidades erinevate partitsiibivormide võrdset esindatust.
Adjektiivi morfosüntaktilise käitumise prototüüpi valiti esindama katsetes kasutatud testmustrite suhteliste sageduste mediaanväärtused adjektiivide rühmas. Sarnasusmõõdikuna kasutasime eukleidilise kauguse meetodit, mis lubab analüüsida kõrvutatavate nähtuste mitmeid parameetreid korraga. Analüüsi tulemuseks on skaala, mis eristab määra, kuivõrd uuritav sõna sarnaneb oma korpuskäitumiselt tavalisele tüüpilisele adjektiivile. Analüüsi tulemusi lahkame testmustrite sarja tõhususe, aga ka testitud adjektiivide korpuskäitumise iseärasuste vaatenurgast.
Sa semantičko-motivacijskoga aspekta, toponimi motivirani geomorfološkim osobinama referenta uveliko nadmašuju ostale semantičko-motivacijske skupine toponima, kako brojem tako i raznovrsnošću apelativa. U ovome je radu, na primjeru ilijaške toponimije, ukazano na udio i raznovrsnost apelativa koji označavaju prirodne reljefne oblike u nastanku toponima bosanskohercegovačkih areala koje karakterizira brdsko-planinski i brežuljkasto-ravničarski teren, kakav bilježimo u sarajevskoj općini Ilijaš. U skladu s vrstama reljefnih oblika na kopnu, pod orografskim apelativima u ovome radu podrazumijevamo one geografske apelative kojima se označavaju uzvisine, udubine i ravnine na zemljinoj površini. Građa za ovaj rad ekscerpirana je iz ilijaškoga mikrotoponomastikona formiranoga terenskim i katastarskim istraživanjem, koji broji oko 6000 mikrotoponimskih različnica. Orografski su apelativi definirani na temelju geografskih terminoloških rječnika i mjesnoga leksika i iskustva ispitanika u vezi s upotrebnim značenjem apelativa u istraživanom arealu. Apelativi su doneseni u središnjem dijelu rada abecednim redom, a uz svaki je apelativ u zagradi naznačena etimologija i značenje apelativa koje ima u ispitivanom arealu, potvrđeno ili nepotvrđeno terminološkim rječnicima, a potom i toponimske potvrde iz korpusa. Svi su toponimski likovi potvrđeni na terenu akcentirani. Cilj je istraživanja provedenoga u ovome radu ukazati na obimnost i raznovrsnost geografske nomenklature zastupljene u ilijaškoj toponimiji, koja je odraz geografskoga realiteta ispitivanoga areala i mjesnoga leksika. S obzirom na geografske referente i njihove reljefne karakteristike, u ilijaškoj toponimiji uočili smo skupine plodnih i manje plodnih orografskih apelativa, među kojima su najbrojniji oni koji označavaju udubljenja, uzvisine i zaravni, dok su najproduktivniji u tvorbi toponima apelativi iz skupine koja označava ravne terene, potom uzvišenja i udubine. Sa strukturno-tvorbenoga aspekta, najzastupljeniji su bezafiksalni toponimi, nastali toponimizacijom orografskih apelativa. Osim domaćih apelativa, koji prevladavaju, prisutni su i apelativi turskoga, romanskoga, grčkoga, njemačkoga, mađarskoga i albanskoga jezičkog porijekla.
قد ألحت ضرورة تعليم ونقل المفاهيم والمعاني من لغة إلي لغة أخري تدوين المعاجم الثنائية اللغة، وبما أن هذا الأمر يتعلق أحيانا بلغتين تنتميان إلي أسر لغوية مختلفة فيقتضي الدقة البالغة ويواجه المشاكل والصعوبات التي لا بد منها. وعلى المعجمي أن يكون متقنا في اللغتين وخبيرا بالمناهج الخاصة لتأليف المعجم وإستراتيجيات كتابته، وعالما بالنظريات اللغوية لإنتاج معجمات أفضل، لأن صناعة المعجم (Lexicography) تندرج تحت علم اللغة التطبيقي؛ إذ يهتم بالجانب العلمي للغة إلي جانب فروع اللسانيات التطبيقية مثل المصطلحية، علم اللغة الآلي، علم اللغة النفسي و... وكذلك أن هذا العلم يرتبط بعلوم شتي كعلم الدلالة، والنحو، والصرف، والأدب و.. وعدم الاهتمام بمثل هذه القضايا قد يؤدي إلي نواقص في المعاجم ويجعل تيار البحث يسير بطيئا.
من هذا المنطلق ونظرا لأهمية المعاجم في تعليم اللغة لغير الناطقين بها فيستهدف هذا البحث إلي دراسة أحد المعاجم الفارسية العربية المعنون بالمعجم الفارسي الكبير لإبراهيم دسوقي شتا دراسة نقدية مشيرا إلي أهم العيوب التي تخللت هذا المعجم القيم.
History of scholarship and learning. The humanities, Arts in general
При работе над образовательными материалами особое внимание следует уделить удобочитаемости представленной в этих материалах информации, в том числе текстовой. Удобочитаемость — это показатель легкости, с которой читатель может понять написанный текст. Эта оценка учитывает такие факторы, как длина предложения, выбор слов и структура текста. Существуют определенные формулы подсчета текстовых метрик, на основании которых оценивается удобочитаемость текста. В настоящем исследовании рассмотрены некоторые из них, разработанные примерно в 40–70-х годах 20 века, и предложены методы их модификации для улучшения результатов. Обновленные данные для анализа сложности некоторых слов получены не с помощью опросов реальных людей, а методом сравнения заранее выбранных текстов, что существенно сократило время исследования. Цель исследования — найти хороший способ подсчитать уровень сложности текста математической направленности, написанного на английском языке, используя одну из «классических» формул удобочитаемости — формулу Дейла — Челла. Современные методы оценки сложности текста с использованием технологий машинного обучения не рассматриваются в данной статье.
Способность определять уровень удобочитаемости текста решает научную проблему точной оценки доступности и понятности написанного текста. Это помогает гарантировать, что письменное сообщение эффективно передает заложенный в него смысл целевой аудитории. Анализ читаемости обычно основан на эмпирических исследованиях и математических алгоритмах, которые учитывают различные лингвистические и когнитивные факторы для определения уровня сложности написанного текста. Решая проблему точной оценки удобочитаемости, становится возможным повысить эффективность письменного общения в самых разных областях, включая образование, журналистику и маркетинг. Использование анализа удобочитаемости также помогает повысить грамотность и обеспечить доступность письменных материалов для людей с широким спектром способностей к чтению.
In the Russian and English discourse, there is a set of nationally specific vocatives that form a system and
can be represented in a Russian-English and English-Russian ideographic dictionary of vocatives. Neither in the
Russian nor in the English lexicographic tradition does there exist an ideographic dictionary of vocatives, while its
creation seems relevant for cultural and linguistic reasons. The purpose of the study is to characterize the macro and
microstructure of a Russian-English and English-Russian ideographic dictionary of vocatives, to identify common
features and specific peculiarities of Russian and English vocatives included in the denotative-ideographic group of
education. The scope of this article covers the semantics of vocatives denoting a person according to his / her role in the
education process. The Russian-English and English-Russian ideographic dictionary of vocatives should contain
information about the syntactic nature and grammatical semantics of the vocatives. The dictionary should include
information about the fact if the vocatives can be used without any modifiers, whether they can be singular or plural and
can be combined with thou / you forms (in the English-Russian part of the dictionary), if the vocative singular form can
be used addressing a group of people (e.g. the vocative bachelor instead of bachelors). The dictionary should also
include information whether the vocatives can be used with additional vocative means (a vocative means is something
that can make a noun, which is usually not used as a vocative without attribute adjectives, a form of address).
Additional vocative means can include adjectives dear, beloved; the pronoun my; the use of suffixes, including
diminutives, the interjection hey, etc. The article presents the results of semantic and contextual research on vocatives
included in the denotative-ideographic group of education. The article discusses the national-cultural features of
vocatives in accordance with the specifics of speech etiquette and the interpretation of the communicative category of politeness in the Russian and English linguistic cultures. The results of the study can be applied while compiling
Russian and English ideographic dictionaries.
After more than 100 years of existence, Norway’s Great Norwegian Encyclopedia went through a major crisis between 2010 and 2014, as the transformation to the new, digital reality became commercially unviable to the publishing house that owned it. The country’s universities came together, formed The Great Norwegian Encyclopedia Association, and created a new editorial team, which has transformed the encyclopedia into an online success with high-quality articles assessed and updated by some of Norway’s leading scholars. The partnership with academia, a purpose-made publishing software, a decentralized production model, and confidence in the original brand have been keys to building this public service encyclopedia that other, likeminded institutions across Europe can learn from.
The Use of the Lexical Exponents of Hypothetical Modality in Polish and Lithuanian
In this article the author focuses on the issue of hypothetical modality[1] in Polish and Lithuanian. A list of the basic exponents of hypothetical modality in both languages is presented. However, the focus is mainly placed on the lexical exponents. On the basis of one of the six groups, which describes a high degree of probability (H5), the differences between the use of the lexical exponents in both languages are examined. In the study, multilingual corpora resources, including The Polish-Lithuanian parallel corpus Clarin-PL., are utilized.
[1] [In the academic literature, for the notion described herein, the term of epistemic modality is also used. Nevertheless, in this paper I will continue to use the term of hypotheticality, which I borrowed from the studies on modality, conducted in Polish-Bulgarian cooperation (Slavic Institute of Polish Academy of Sciences and Institute for Bulgarian Language of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences).]
O użyciu wykładników leksykalnych modalności hipotetycznej w językach polskim i litewskim
W artykule autorka porusza zagadnienie modalności hipotetycznej[1] w językach polskim i litewskim. Przedstawia wykaz podstawowych wykładników modalności hipotetycznej w obu językach. Główną uwagę skupia jednak na wykładnikach leksykalnych. Na przykładzie jednej z sześciu grup, opisującej wysoki stopień prawdopodobieństwa (H5), omawia różnice użycia wykładników leksykalnych w obu językach. W badaniach wykorzystuje wielojęzyczne zasoby korpusowe, w tym Polsko-litewski korpus równoległy Clarin-PL.
[1] [W literaturze przedmiotu na oznaczenie opisywanych tu treści stosowany jest również termin epistemiczności. Niemniej jednak w tej pracy autorka pozostaje przy terminie hipotetyczności, który zapożycza z badań nad modalnością, prowadzonych we współpracy polsko-bułgarskiej (Instytut Slawistyki PAN i Instytut Języka Bułgarskiego BAN).]
Computational linguistics. Natural language processing, Semantics
With the popularity of electronic dictionaries, multimodality plays an increasingly important role in lexicography. To broaden the horizons of e-dictionary definitions, this article argues for the establishment of a new term, multimodal definition, as a key component of multimodal lexicography. This term integrates verbal definitions and the complementary multimodal resources from a holistic viewpoint of meaning. In a multimodal definition, a dynamic meaning ecology can be formed, with two critical variables functioning, (semiotic) mode selection and intermodal synergy. In this ecology, meaning expressed verbally can be multiplied in four dimensions: content, form, space and time. Future directions for research are discussed, including dictionary user studies and multimodal corpora. The findings of this article shed light on the construction of a theoretical model for e-lexicography which remains an urgent task in the ongoing digital revolution.
Functional class (so called “part of speech”) assignment as a kind of meaning-bound word syntactic information
The traditional division of the lexicon into parts of speech which seems to satisfy the requirements of a syntactic description, on the one hand, and a word formation description, on the other hand, cannot be looked upon as a result of a strict classification covering the totality of the lexicon and being based on a coherent set of criteria. Making the criteria more precise or correcting them is an issue of extreme importance and urgency in the work on the theory of language. Such achievements can help solve many other problems, in particular, syntactic ones. The article presents a scheme of several preliminary steps of an amelioration program (a scheme which has been improved compared to the author’s earlier attempts going in the same direction). The program is based on combinability characteristics of words, i.e. on those properties that are responsible for the tasks to be accomplished by a given class of expressions in making up a higher order unit, i.e. a syntagm (the author emphasizes this point: it is syntagm rather than sentence which is the category the recommended approach is focusing on), and that, importantly, determine the limits of syntactic rules, i.e. the ins and outs of the rules (the limits concerning the overall stock of words).
Computational linguistics. Natural language processing, Semantics