Hasil untuk "History of Russia. Soviet Union. Former Soviet Republics"

V. Gritsenko, O. Skugarevsky, V. Konstantinov et al.

Coronavirus (COVID-19) was first detected in November 2019 (Chan et al. 2020). The infection spread quickly in Wuhan (the capital of the Chinese province of Hubei) and then throughout China and other countries including the Russian Federation (RF) and Republic of Belarus (RB). In early May, more than 190,000 Russians and 20,168 Belarusian were infected (Johns Hopkins University 2020). Russia and Belarus were part of the former Soviet Union and have a similar culture—a single written language and common religion; also, there are close economic and political relations. However, Russia and Belarus have chosen different strategies in fighting COVID19. Russia has taken a path similar to most European countries—strict quarantine (self-isolation), movement restriction, social distancing, mandatory use of personal protective equipment including masks and gloves, public event bans, as well as border and air traffic closures. In comparison, Belarus has not endorsed quarantine and has proceeded with “life as usual” without closing borders, businesses, restaurants, museums, cinemas, schools, or universities. It has imposed a 2-week quarantine of Belarusian citizens who came from countries with the coronavirus epidemic. Pandemic-related conditions are linked to negative economic consequences effecting living conditions at all levels (Atkeson 2020; Baker et al. 2020) and increased mental health incidents. Evidence about the psychological impact of coronavirus points to conditions of depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and suicide (Galea et al. 2020; Sorokin et al. 2020; Wan 2020) as well as confusion, anger, fear, boredom, stigma, and stress over the loss of https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-020-00330-z

Artem Novobritskii

In the 21st century, the era of globalization, consumers are dispersed across the globe, and brands compete for their attention and loyalty, largely within the digital realm. This reality elevates the importance of effective communication and the transmission of product value across diverse cultural contexts. This study presents a comparative quantitative analysis of the digital marketing strategies of Xiaomi, a leading Chinese technology brand, on two major social media platforms: Sina Weibo in China and VK (VKontakte) in Russia. The research investigates how Xiaomi adapts its communication to align with local cultural values, as defined by the theoretical frameworks of Hofstede and Hall. Through a frequency analysis of text-based posts and emoji usage, this paper demonstrates the significant differences in Xiaomi's communication strategies in these two markets. The findings reveal that in China, a market characterized by high masculinity and low uncertainty avoidance, Xiaomi's messaging focuses on innovation, authority, and aspiration. In contrast, in Russia, a market with high uncertainty avoidance and lower masculinity, the brand's communication is more pragmatic, emphasizing tangible product benefits and building emotional connections. This study contributes to the field of intercultural digital marketing by providing empirical evidence of how a global brand adapts its communication strategies to different cultural contexts. The findings offer valuable insights for multinational corporations seeking to develop effective global marketing strategies in an increasingly interconnected world.

D. Polyakov

The strategic vacuum after the collapse of the Soviet Union gave rise to some alternative initiatives to maintain stability and peace in the Black Sea region. The article examines the unique “Blackseafor” cooperation model established by the agreement on the foundation of the Black Sea Naval Task Force; the paper also discusses the Black Sea Harmony Operation, aimed at deterring terrorism and asymmetric threats in the region. First of all, the emphasis is placed on the history of the cooperation model, its purpose, objectives and the role played by the “Blackseafor” in the system of regional security and inter-ethnic interaction. An attempt is made to explain the practical mechanisms of the naval cooperation, as well as of the reasons for curtailing the initiative and the role of the Republic of Turkey. It is concluded that the model was an exceptional example of how the navies of the same region countries with different geopolitical positions and foreign policy orientations can be brought together to create an atmosphere of mutual trust and cooperation. However, after the NATO’s fifth enlargement, the development of the “Blackseafor” was not supported by Romania, Bulgaria and Georgia, which were interested in the presence of the Alliance’s naval forces in the Black Sea, though the Russian Federation and Turkey continued obstructing that involvement.

Alexander Polunov

The article is devoted to the spiritual and ideological aspects of interaction between the Russian Empire and Ethiopia (Abyssinia) at the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries. Relations between the two Christian states can be described as “a journey through time,” since from the point of view of Russian society, Ethiopia not only remained faithful to the original religion and traditional way of life, but was also in many ways similar to pre-Petrine Rus'. Here the role of the clergy was strong; the head of the state was the Negus, endowed with autocratic power. Parallels with Russia were also visible in the social structure of the African country. The spiritual and religious dialogue between Russia and Ethiopia was manifested in a number of symbolic gestures, mutual visits, and other measures of an ideological nature. Despite the fact that for a long time the idea of friendship with the country of “black Christians” captivated the minds of conservative public and church leaders in Russia, due to the political complications of the early 20th century the “empire of kings” gradually lost interest in “time travel” associated with Ethiopia. The very perception of the African country as the embodiment of the historical past lost its basis as its isolation from the outside world collapsed. By the beginning of the twentieth century. Ethiopia became a subject of interest of Western powers, whose attitudes were dictated more by pragmatic rather than spiritual and ideological considerations. The collapse of the Russian monarchy interrupted relations between Russia and Ethiopia for a long time. Nevertheless, these relations represent a remarkable page in the history of Russian public thought.

S. Cebotari, Ion Coropcean, Selena Stejaru

Nearly 35 years after the conclusion of the Cold War and the collapse of the former Soviet Union, the Russian Federation, as its successor, strives to reclaim its status as a great power. More than three decades since the dissolution of USSR and Moldova’s declaration of independence on August 27, 1991, the Republic of Moldova remains a state where the Russian Federation pursues its own geopolitical interests, employing a range of strategies from soft power to coercion in order to achieve its objectives. Since early 2000s, the Russian Federation has adopted a more assertive policy to reestablish its influence in the “near abroad,” a region where it continues to advance its geostrategic interests. In this manner, the Russian hybrid warfare against the Republic of Moldova reflects its broader strategy of maintaining regional dominance. Since the end of the Cold War and the dissolution of USSR, the Russian Federation, as its successor, has persistently sought to regain its status as a global power. The purpose of this article is to highlight the main elements of the hybrid war used by the Russian Federation to maintain the Republic of Moldova within its sphere of influence.

V. Gavrilenko

The issues of jurisdiction of disputes between economic entities to be solved through the institution of commercial non-state arbitration and the competence of arbitration institutions to consider certain types of disputes are analyzed. As a continuation of the publication in the previous issue of the journal, the arbitration legislation and arbitration practice of the Baltic states of the former USSR, such as the Republic of Latvia and the Republic of Estonia, were researched and the activities of local arbitration institutions. There is an influence on genesis of the above states legislation of Soviet and Russian law, as well as the legal traditions of some states of the European Union, especially the countries of Western Europe and Scandinavia. The Baltic republics are characterized by formed market economy at a relatively high level. The institution of commercial arbitration, as a means of resolving economic disputes, is also quite developed and in popular in the legal and economic systems of the above states. This publication analyses the legal issues of arbitrability of disputes in legal systems of Latvia and Estonia, national and international legislation governing these issues. Conclusions have been developed about the main advantages and disadvantages of legal regulation of institution of arbitration in above states.

Osman A. Zhansitov

This article explores the impact of the revolutionary situation in the Nalchik District on the dynamics and nature of spontaneous violence and identifies factors that provoked its growth. It notes that in conditions of systemic political crisis, regimes in power lose their monopoly on violence, which is then employed by representatives of various societal layers to settle scores with “class enemies.” Moreover, militarized structures subordinate to the authorities, such as regular army units or popular militias, often used unauthorized repressive practices. This paper emphasizes that acts of spontaneous violence were also provoked by the authorities themselves, who, through propaganda, encouraged the masses to fight against political opponents and social groups loyal to them. The article also discusses attempts by the authorities to contain the growth of spontaneous violence. The Soviet administration in the Nalchik District sought to curb the excessive zeal of commanders of various revolutionary units and to limit their actions within the framework of “socialist legality.” The White administration, aiming to extinguish the social confrontation that arose from the arbitrary attempts by residents harmed by the Bolsheviks to seek compensation, created mechanisms to satisfy their initiatives within the legal framework.

Борис Сергеевич Новосельцев

Используя в основном сербские архивные материалы, Л. Димич вписывает историю югославской внешней политики в более широкий контекст международных отношений периода холодной войны, политики сверхдержав, возникновения и развития Движения неприсоединения и обсуждения вопроса безопасности в Европе. Книга рассказывает о том, как достигался серьезный дипломатический и международно-политический успех небольшой страны, которую не защищали пакты или гарантии сверхдержав. Рецензия поступила в редакцию 10.01.2024. Цитирование Новосельцев Б. С. Новая монография Любодрага Димича // Славянский альманах. 2024. No 1–2. С. 472–478. DOI: 10.31168/2073-5731.2024.1-2.24

Tatiana Ivanova

Introduction. The relevance and purpose of this study are determined by the importance of the labor market in regional development. The choice of an object is determined by the formation of an able-bodied population in different social conditions over a relatively short historical period of time and the need for assessment for subsequent forecasting of the changes that have occurred due to this. Materials and methods. The open materials of the All-Union (1979) and All-Russian (1989 and 2002) population censuses were used. Historical-evolutionary, historical-comparative, and statistical approaches, as well as the method of groupings based on the theory of generations, are applied. Results. For generations silent, baby boomers, X, Y (millennials), and Z, such characteristics as the share in the population, the ratio by sex, place of residence, features of sources of livelihood, types of activities, groups of occupations, and others were revealed. Their differences in the conditions of centralized, transitional, market-based public relation and commonality due to the general biological and digital conditions of formation, as well as the influence of these factors on the nature and depth of processing of the recorded indicators, are shown. Conclusions. The increasing propensity of younger generations to perform skilled labor functions, low willingness to engage in unskilled labor, and interest in diversifying activities. This implies the need for further restructuring of the labor relations system and methods of forecasting the appropriate directions of its transformation. Funding. The article was prepared with the financial support of the Russian Science Foundation and the Committee for Economic Policy and Development of the Volgograd Region, grant No. 24-28-20066, https://rscf.ru/project/24-28-20066/

G. O.

This article examines the frequency of use of Russian, Kyrgyz and other languages in private medical centers in the capital of Kyrgyzstan, identifies the features of printed advertising texts and Internet resources that facilitate the functioning of these organizations. The article presents factual data collected during a sociolinguistic study, which are the basis for the formation of grammar language planning in one of the post-Soviet republics. Methods of social linguistics were used to collect the material. The work is of interest to linguists, sociologists, cultural scientists and historians as a source for analyzing the modern socio-linguistic situation in the former republics of the Soviet Union and the modern area of ​​the Russian-speaking space located outside the Russian Federation. In addition, the work allows doctors from different countries to form an idea of communication between colleagues and patients in private medical centers in Bishkek, which directly affects the ability to find work in this region. The scientific article provides an analysis of texts posted on websites and in the Internet space, as well as in advertising brochures, manuals, bulletins, where the dominant role of the Russian language is noted. It should be noted that the article contains an analysis of the graphics used by private medical centers when registering with the Ministry of Justice, in the media and the Internet. In this case, cases of merging Latin and Cyrillic graphics are noted, which indicates a desire to use international medical vocabulary in characterizing the specifics of many centers.

V. A. Nikonov

The article analyzes the political, economic and cultural development of Ethiopia throughout the existence of this unique state and its role in regional and world politics. It is argued that the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia is one of the oldest civilizations and the only sub-Saharan African country with a long tradition of sovereign existence. The author explores the history of various state entities, including Napata, Damaat, Aksum and others that existed on the territory of modern Ethiopia. The analysis of the main stages of the colonial expansion of the European powers in the second half of the XIX – first half of the XX centuries in the region and the participation of the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union in the consistent support of Ethiopian people's struggle against foreign invaders is carried out. It provides an overview of the key events of the long-term reign of Emperor Haile Selassie, the Ethiopian Revolution and the subsequent civil war, the armed conflict in Ogaden and Soviet-Ethiopian relations in the 1970s and 1980s. The article examines the period of formation of modern Ethiopia, including the democratic reforms of the 1990s, the separation of Eritrea, the armed conflict between the central government and the Tigray rebels, and internal political processes in the country. Special attention is paid to the relations between Addis Ababa and Moscow, which are actively developing today. As a result, it is concluded that Ethiopia, which joined the BRICS in 2024, fits seamlessly into this alliance, which is a genuine “concert of civilizations”.

A. A. Borisova, A. Babaeva

The history study of nationalist parties in the 20th century is the subject of close attention of many researchersgermanists. However, the history of the Sudeten-German party in Czechoslovakia in the 1930s does not often become an object of research. The purpose of the article is to consider the activities of the Sudeten-German party, to highlight the key reasons for its emergence. Particular attention is paid to the evolution of the party leaders' views on the way to unification with Nazi Germany. Also, the work proposed, if possible, an objective analysis of the essence of Henlein movement. The urgency of the problem is substantiated, first of all, by the fact that according to a similar scenario events, developed and continue to develop on the territory of the former Yugoslavia, the Soviet Union, especially in the Baltic countries, where the Russian-speaking population makes up a significant part, like the Sudeten Germans in Czechoslovakia at their time, however, they are also targeted by the discriminatory policy of the authorities. The source base was made up of the documents collected by the Czechoslovak researcher V. Kral and published by him in 1964. As part of these materials, a large group of sources can be distinguished, which make up materials at the meetings of the main leadership in the Sudeten German Home Front - the Sudeten German Party in the period from 1933 to 1937, early 1938 and the speech by the leader of the Sudeten German Party K. Heinlein. Since the early 1990s we can talk about the renaissance of the historiography of the Sudeten-German history, mainly due to the development of archives in Germany, the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The First World War did not contribute to the resolution of national contradictions. After the end of the First World War the Sudeten Germans were also included in Czechoslovakia at the behest of the Entente. The Sudeten-German party of K. Henlein took an active position in this struggle. Summing up, the authors conclude that the question of the nature of Henlein movement is controversial. Henlein movement really resembled the Nazi party in Germany, but at the initial stage of its activity in 1933-1936. However, as the Czechoslovak authorities opposed, pressure from the Nazi party in Germany and the strengthening of the right-wing radical branch, the Sudeten German Party practically lost its characteristics and turned into an analogue of the National Socialist German Workers' Party. This fact largely predetermined the radical solution of the Sudeten-German question through the Munich agreements on September 29, 1938, when the border regions of Czechoslovakia were annexed to Germany. Undoubtedly, these agreements were in the interests of the majority of the Sudeten Germans, who, however, once again became victims of the big European politics.

Defrida Suzana Lukuaka, Halomoan Freddy Sitinjak Alexandra, H. Saragih et al.

Ukraine is one of the former Soviet Union states that gained independence in 1991. Ukraine's long history is inextricably linked with conflict, particularly following the Bolshevik invasion of 1921-1922. Under Soviet rule, the Ukrainian people endured considerable suffering across social, economic, and political spheres. One of the darkest chapters in Ukraine's history is the Holodomor. This event ultimately catalysed the Ukrainian independence movement. The Holodomor also engendered an anti-Soviet (Russian) sentiment, as it was regarded as an act of genocide against ethnic Ukrainians. Anti-Russian campaigns intensified following Ukraine's independence and manifested in the Ukrainization movement. However, this movement inadvertently fostered inter-ethnic tensions among Ukrainian citizens, particularly those of Russian ethnicity. The research employs a traditional literature review methodology, involving qualitative data collection and analysis. The conclusion that whilst the Ukrainian Nationalist Movement indeed has implications for political tensions between ethnic Ukrainians and Russians, this is largely attributable to the Ukrainian government's failure to accommodate the aspirations of national minority groups, such as ethnic Russians, in policy-making processes

Yakov Kiyashko

Introduction. This paper presents preliminary results of the first archaeological survey of the objects of the archaeological heritage “Petrov Val” and “Selimov Val of 1550.” The main purpose of the event has become the clarification of existing information regarding to the features of creation and operation of difficult hydraulic engineering structures such as “Selimov Val of 1550” or Johann Brekkel’s canal and “Petrov Val” or rather, the canal, which was built under the leadership of John Perry at the turn of the 17th – 18th centuries. Methods and materials. During the research, the attempt to discover the cultural layer of the 18th century was made using the help of archeological methods. Analysis. In the process of visual inspection of these objects, their significant damage was observed, which was inflicted during human economic activity. During the archeological exploration, open test pits were made to identify the cultural layer in the most promising places. While studying the site “Petrov Val”, the test pit was made on the territory located near the Ilovlya riverbed. During the survey of the object “Selimov Val of 1550”, one pit was made near the Cossack artillery battery, which can be dated to the beginning of the 18th century, the second was made in the place where, a small old working settlement of the builders of the Brekkel’s canal was located, according to the map from the atlas of Kruise (1704). Unfortunately, archaeological material was not found during the excavations. Results. During the visual inspection of the site “Selimov Val of 1550”, its beginning from the Ilovlya River and its continuation up to the settlement of Petrov Val, which had not been considered for forming the boundaries of this object before, were localized. According to the results of archaeological work, it has become clear that the name “Selimov Val of 1550” is wrong, because the surviving remains of this hydraulic engineering structure fully correspond to the description of the canal, which was laid by workers under the leadership of Johann Brekkel in the late 17th century.

Elena Sozina

Рассматривается традиция изображения «мизеров», «мизераблей», «крошечных», «бедных», «забитых» людей в русской литературе с 1840‑х по 1860‑е гг. Ф. М. Достоевский устами героя романа «Идиот» назвал их «мизерами с человеческой душой» и полагал «восстановление погибшего человека» основной мыслью искусства всего XIX столетия. Исходной точкой исследования становится роман Достоевского периода натуральной школы «Бедные люди», в котором автор осуществил перелицовку сентименталистской поэтики в соответствии с новыми запросами литературы, акцентировав социально-экономический смысл концепта «бедные люди». В 1860‑е гг. сентиментально-натуралистический стиль Достоевского меняется, и в его фельетонах из «Петербургских сновидений» дискурс бедности начинает звучать достаточно иронично; отчасти это было связано с полемическими задачами Достоевского. Отсюда протягивается линия к поэзии Н. А. Некрасова середины века. В ней прослеживается изменение модальности в обрисовке «мизераблей» и низших слоев населения от исполненного сочувствия драматизма к иронии и сарказму, сопровождающим не столько образы самих бедняков, сколько присутствие этой темы в литературе, ее традиционно филантропическое, сентиментальное воплощение. Материалом анализа в статье выступают поэтические циклы Некрасова 1850–1860‑х гг. «На улице» и «О погоде», где ярче всего представлены образы «бедняков» на петербургских улицах, в «петербургских трущобах». Третьим писателем, избравшим объектом своего внимания городскую бедноту, обитателей подвальных трущоб, выступает Ф. М. Решетников с рассказом «Яшка» (1868). История вхождения этого писателя в литературу сопоставима с историей публикации первого романа Достоевского, да и сам Решетников, судя по его письмам и дневнику, подчас напоминает «мизерабельных» героев своего гораздо более известного и успешного писателя-современника. Отталкиваясь от ставших традиционными форм авторского переживания за героя, брошенного на дно жизни, наивно-простодушное, «плохое» письмо Решетникова, по мнению автора статьи, имитировало нормальность, обычность страшной жизни его персонажей, скрывало тепло и человеческую боль, которые должен был услышать читатель. Оно приближало его «мизерабельных», бессловесных героев к автору, а значит, и к читателю, открывая новые возможности литературы, которые будут развивать писатели рубежа столетий.

Olga Semenova

The article explores various facets of cultural life, focusing on the activities of cultural institutions in Chechen-Ingushetia during the 1940s to the 1960s. Following the deportation of the indigenous population to Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, individuals from different regions of the USSR were relocated to fill the void. The objective of this study is to illustrate the role of culturalinstitutions during that time, highlighting their significance for the Chechen population, as well as their contribution in mitigating the socio-political crisis that ensued as a result of the USSR leadership's decision to deport certain ethnic groups. The Soviet government provided the resettled individuals with familiar cultural establishments such as theaters, clubs, libraries, and schools. Consequently, this research explores the distinct characteristics of these institutions, analyzes their level of development, and determines their importance in facilitating the return of Chechens and Ingush people to their homeland. Furthermore, new materials and sources pertaining to this research topic have been introduced. The study incorporates materials from the periodical press of that era, specifically the newspaper Grozny Rabochy. Based on the reviewed material, it can be concluded that the shared socio-cultural space, values, and ideals of society possess the capacity to tackle even the most challenging problems, foster unity among people, and aid in overcoming arduous socio-political crises.

Tsys Valeriy, Ol′ga Tsys′

The article characterizes the cultural and educational work of the diocesan departments of the Imperial Orthodox Palestine Society (IOPS) on the national outskirts of the Russian Empire in the late 19th - early 20th centuries. It is noted that the main form of this work was the organization and holding of Palestinian readings aimed at popularizing knowledge about the Holy Land, the Russian pilgrimage, the activities of the Imperial Orthodox Palestinian Society in the Middle East, as well as publishing literature on relevant topics in national languages. Its deployment dates back to the mid-1890s. and continued until 1917. The western provinces of the Russian Empire were a field of collision and interaction between two civilizations - Catholic (Polish-Lithuanian) and Orthodox (East Slavic). In their confrontation, a local national identity (Belarusian, Ukrainian) was formed, and the work of the IOPS can be considered as one of the tools for involving the local population in solving problems common to the Orthodox world, with the help of which they realized their organic connection with the “Russian world”. The high activity of diocesan departments on the territory of Ukraine, Belarus and Moldova, the popularity of Palestinian readings are revealed. It is concluded that there is no national specificity in the organization and conduct of Palestinian readings by the "Ukrainian" and "Belarusian" diocesan departments of the IOPS. Where the Russian population was in an absolute minority (Poland, Georgia), the activities of the IOPS were aimed at representatives of the diaspora and almost did not affect local residents. In such regions as the Volga region, Siberia, the European North, northwestern Kazakhstan, the activity of the IOPS was linked with missionary work. It is indicated that the diocesan departments of the IOPS have contributed to the Christian enlightenment of the "foreign" population recently converted to Orthodoxy, to the fight against pagan remnants, various superstitions and prejudices. The expansion of the scale of pilgrimage to the Holy Land was noted as one of the consequences of the cultural and educational work of the IOPS.

Татьяна Ивановна Вендина

Статья посвящена анализу антропоцентрической парадигмы славянской диалектологии, современный этап которой можно с полным основанием охарактеризовать как этап становления «аналитической, объясняющей диалектологии», имеющей своей целью глубинную интерпретацию диалектного слова и сопряженный с ним анализ языка традиционной культуры. Благодаря Н. И. Толстому сформировалось новое направление в культурно-языковой диалектологии – этнолингвистика, в которой исследование диалектного слова ведется сквозь призму культурной антропологии, так как для адекватного познания языка необходимы выходы за его пределы – в философию, логику, культуру, психологию, социологию, этнологию, историю и другие области гуманитарного знания. Из лингвистики «имманентной», лингвистики «в самой себе и для себя» этнолингвистика превратилась в «зачем/почему-лингвистику» (А. Е. Кибрик), логика развития которой требует реализации общей программы антропоцентрической лингвистики – «найти доступ к человеку через язык». По мнению Н. И. Толстого, только язык может дать истинную картину языкового сознания человека той или иной культуры со всеми ее сложностями и нюансами. Опора на лингвистическую реконструкцию когнитивной структуры диалектного слова позволяет перейти от эмпирических данных к их интерпретационному анализу, т. е. подняться с уровня регистрации фактов на уровень их объяснения. Актуальность и жизненность идеи Никиты Ильича об антропологии диалектного слова доказывает и такой проект, как «Общеславянский лингвистический атлас», работа над которым началась также во многом благодаря ему. Статья поступила в редакцию 12.04.2023. Рецензирование завершено 12.04.2023. Статья принята к публикации 12.09.2023. Цитирование Вендина Т. И. Н. И. Толстой и антропология диалектного слова (к столетию со дня рождения) // Славянский альманах. 2023. No 3–4. С. 230–245. DOI: 10.31168/2073-5731.2023.3-4.11

Christopher A. Hartwell, Paul M. Vaaler

Research on politically motivated unrest and sovereign risk overlooks whether and how unrest location matters for sovereign risk in geographically extensive states. Intuitively, political violence in the capital or nearby would seem to directly threaten the state's ability to pay its debts. However, it is possible that the effect on a government could be more pronounced the farther away the violence is, connected to the longer-term costs of suppressing rebellion. We use Tsarist Russia to assess these differences in risk effects when unrest occurs in Russian homeland territories versus more remote imperial territories. Our analysis of unrest events across the Russian imperium from 1820 to 1914 suggests that unrest increases risk more in imperial territories. Echoing current events, we find that unrest in Ukraine increases risk most. The price of empire included higher costs in projecting force to repress unrest and retain the confidence of the foreign investors financing those costs.

Jiaxing Xu, Aihu Zhang, Qingtian Bian et al.

Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) are widely used for graph representation learning in many application domains. The expressiveness of vanilla GNNs is upper-bounded by 1-dimensional Weisfeiler-Leman (1-WL) test as they operate on rooted subtrees through iterative message passing. In this paper, we empower GNNs by injecting neighbor-connectivity information extracted from a new type of substructure. We first investigate different kinds of connectivities existing in a local neighborhood and identify a substructure called union subgraph, which is able to capture the complete picture of the 1-hop neighborhood of an edge. We then design a shortest-path-based substructure descriptor that possesses three nice properties and can effectively encode the high-order connectivities in union subgraphs. By infusing the encoded neighbor connectivities, we propose a novel model, namely Union Subgraph Neural Network (UnionSNN), which is proven to be strictly more powerful than 1-WL in distinguishing non-isomorphic graphs. Additionally, the local encoding from union subgraphs can also be injected into arbitrary message-passing neural networks (MPNNs) and Transformer-based models as a plugin. Extensive experiments on 18 benchmarks of both graph-level and node-level tasks demonstrate that UnionSNN outperforms state-of-the-art baseline models, with competitive computational efficiency. The injection of our local encoding to existing models is able to boost the performance by up to 11.09%. Our code is available at https://github.com/AngusMonroe/UnionSNN.