Hasil untuk "History of Law"

L. Bettencourt, J. Lobo, D. Helbing et al.

Tatiana A. Fominykh, Sergey A. Kutia

Relevance. Knowledge of scientific concepts and achievements of the past provides an informative basis for modern research. Moreover, these achievements are filled with the greatest meaning if they are associated with a specific person and the time in which they occurred. Thus, knowledge of the history of science allows us not to neglect the intellectual heritage of past generations and turn it into potential for the development of modern research. In one of his speeches, Nobel laureate Sir Andrew Huxley noted that if he had familiarized himself with the literature of the 19th century in more detail, he would have been able to successfully complete some of his research much faster and more effectively. It must be said that the 19th century gave humanity a whole galaxy of the greatest scientists who made truly fateful discoveries. Our article is dedicated to one of such scientists - Sir Charles Bell (1774-1842), an outstanding Scottish surgeon, anatomist and experimental physiologist. Results of study. In the course of his scientific, teaching and practical medical activities, Bell implemented his accumulated knowledge and experience in the publication of many treatises that remain relevant to this day. Charles Bell applied his talent as an artist in anatomy, personally illustrating magnificent treatises written in collaboration with his older brother, the famous surgeon John Bell, and in surgery (more precisely, in military field surgery), sketching the wounded after the Battle of Waterloo. The scientist also made an invaluable contribution to the development of neurology. Thus, the name of Charles Bell is immortalized in the name of the long thoracic (or «external respiratory») nerve, in the description of lower motor neuron palsy of the facial nerve, and in the «Bell’s sign», when the eyeball rolls upward when trying to close the eye. His description of the differences between the fifth and seventh cranial nerves, as well as the definition of the morpho-functional characteristics of the anterior and posterior roots of the spinal cord as Bell’s law, are widely known. For his invaluable contribution to science, Charles Bell was awarded the gold medal of the Royal Society and made a knight of the Hanoverian Guelphic Order. Conclusion. The statement of the great Russian surgeon N.I. Pirogov, «Everything that is high in the world is art, inspiration and science…» is the most appropriate description of his contemporary Charles Bell, who combined these three hypostases. It is important to note that the reflex theory, whose founder is considered to be Charles Bell, is a fundamental concept of physiology and medicine, although in the early stages (in the mid-19th century) this principle was considered only in relation to the spinal cord.

Seyed Alireza Tabatabaei, Erfan Ekvan

Identification of property in Imami jurisprudence and, accordingly, in Iranian law, is conditional on having exchange value, legitimacy, possession and transferability. Unusual digital tokens that have created a huge transformation in the field of intellectual property rights and virtual objects are known from the perspective of common property; However, the mere customary identification of its property is not the reason for the validity of the property from a jurisprudential and legal point of view, and other conditions for property identification must be met. This research, with a descriptive and analytical method and using library and internet tools, deals with the feasibility of applying the taxation conditions in Iranian law and Imami jurisprudence to Non-Fungible Token. related to property, such as whether it is movable or immovable, the ability to seize it, etc. in relation to this issue in future research. The results of the research indicate the conformity of the four criteria for identification of ownership obtained from the summation of the opinions of Imamiyyah jurists and the custom of economists on digital tokens. Therefore, such tokens in virtual space have financial conditions and will be classified as assets, and civil and commercial legal effects will follow them.1. Introduction The world has entered a new era since the beginning of the 1980s. Understanding what it is and why it is and understanding the necessary planning to cope with it requires the use of new concepts and theories. Virtual space, as a product of new information and communication technology, has a decisive role in this. This real space, which is an extension of human society in the context of information and communication technology, is an infinite space that organizes all kinds of interactions through information and communication in a digital context. In this space, regardless of the limitation caused by physical geography, extensive communication between persons with each other, persons with objects and objects with each other is provided through computers and in a digital process. One of the latest phenomena of organizing economic and non-economic interactions in the virtual space is called blockchain, which has created a huge evolution in terms of security, speed and transparency of data. Blockchain technology has brought many derivatives to humanity, one of the most prominent of which is Non-Federal Digital Tokens (NFT). These tokens have various applications in the field of economy, trade, culture, politics and other social and interactive affairs of humans with each other, humans with objects and objects with each other. Although today, art, business, and music are at the forefront of using this tool, and the buying and selling of things such as works of art, digital books, and in fact anything that can be converted into this type of token has become common. The basic question regarding these tokens is that according to these economic functions, from the perspective of Imami jurisprudence and according to Iranian law, do these tokens have the conditions to be recognized as property so that it can be assumed that they can be owned and have legal effects on them? or that if buying and selling takes place, it is only for the common practice and basically these tokens do not have juridical value. The purpose of this research is to investigate the conformity of property identification criteria in Imamiyyah jurisprudence and Iranian law on non-homologous digital tokens. Considering that previous researches have generally dealt with finance in the cyber space or paid attention to cryptocurrencies in general, the present research has this innovation that it specifically deals with the finance of non-traditional digital tokens, which until the time of writing this article, in Persian sources, there is no research in this field. The context is not visible. 2. Methodology The method used for this research is descriptive-analytical. In this article, two categories of sources are used: the first category includes authentic books of Imami jurisprudence, laws related to property rights in Iran's legal system, and authentic articles that serve as a reference for obtaining the nature of property and the criteria required for token comparison. Non-homosexual digital tokens are considered in Imamiya and Iranian jurisprudence, and the second category includes valid educational courses, international authoritative articles and sites that are used to obtain the required information related to non-homosexual digital tokens. Non-Fungible Token in Iran, like in other countries, is a new phenomenon and does not have a diverse and extensive research history. in other words, this article is the first research in Iran's legal system that comments on the property of these virtual objects. It should be noted that some limited research related to the rights of Non-Fungible Token in Iran has been done in the form of a thesis in the field of intellectual and intellectual property rights, such as the role of Non-Fungible Token in supporting intellectual property rights at the University of Tehran. 3. Results and Discussion In order to identify any issue in terms of whether it is tax or not, it is necessary to determine the classification of the issue, because each classification of property requires its own criteria for taxation. In Iranian law, property is divided into the same category as tangible property and benefits. A benefit that is included in the category of property can be manifested in two forms, object or service. As a result, in general, regardless of whether the subject of property is object or benefit, property can be considered in this division according to its different nature, object or service. Any non-physical activity that is transferred from its provider to the applicant is called a service, the characteristics of services include intangibility, non-storability, uniqueness, customer participation in services, and inseparability. In contrast to services, Non-Fungible Token have the ability to be stored in digital wallets, they are also independent of their creator after production and are portable in the virtual space through transfer on the blockchain platform, as a result, digital tokens are not considered services in this division and they should be put it in the category of tangible property. The basis for examining the wealth criteria of tangible property can be pure Imamiyyah jurisprudence or special economic custom, which includes the opinions of economists. In Imamiyyah jurisprudence, there are three views on the property of the subjects, according to the first point of view, the mere presence of some kind of halal benefit is sufficient to consider the subject as property, but the criticism that can be made to this opinion is that there are some subjects that in the perspective of Iranian law And custom has value, but their benefit is not a generic; Like the photo of the father of the family, which has no benefit in generic standard, while it is very important for his family, and each member of the family may pay a lot of money to the owner to get this photo. The second view considers having a legitimate interest to be enough to be property, but this opinion is also incomplete; Because it is true that the condition of having a legitimate interest is comprehensive; But after examining more opinions, we will realize that the mere benefit and legitimacy does not make the title of property on an issue true. The third and final view in Imamiyyah jurisprudence also considers rational benefit as the criterion for property, which, like the previous views, faces the problem of being incomplete; Because there are many examples in Iran that may have a small rational benefit; However, from the perspective of Imami jurisprudence, they should not be considered property; Like pork, which is not worth eating due to impurity in Iranian law. The opinions of economists are also incomplete just like Imamiyyah jurisprudence and cannot provide comprehensive criteria and obstacles to identify tangible property. The first opinion is the theory of value and utility, which was presented by some thinkers in the 19th century. According to this theory, like the third opinion of the Imami jurists, any subject that has a rational benefit is considered property, while the mere possession of a rational benefit is not considered property and it is not under the ownership of individuals, for example, consider air, it is true that it has the rational benefit of life for humans, but it cannot be considered as property and considered as the property of limited individuals. The second opinion in the specific economic custom is the theory of value resulting from the cost of production and labor, which was presented by Adam Smith, so everything that is created based on human labor has value, but this opinion is also incomplete. Some examples of property, such as horses, are without value. The fact that a person does something on them, they are considered independently from the perspective of custom and property law. In general, according to the fact that each of the examined opinions is incomplete, the criteria of tangible property should be found in the examination of the relationship between people and property, with a little thought in this connection, four criteria of having an exchange value that causes demand, having juridical and legal legitimacy, ability to possess and transferability can be declared as the criteria of tangible property and concluded that the criteria of tangible property in Iranian law is a combination of Imamiyyah jurists and the special custom of economists. on the same basis, Iranian law has established rules in paragraph 3 of article 190 and articles 215, 240, 348, 422, 637, 754, 773 that imply compliance with these criteria for tangible property. in the end, to check the value of digital tokens, it is necessary to verify the existence of the mentioned criteria in this type of virtual object. Non-fungible tokens due to multiple and unique applications such as creating wealth through selling works of art and playing games and creating virtual property security through providing intellectual and intellectual property rights qualify for the first criterion, i.e. having an exchange value that creates demand. In relation to the second criterion, in Imami jurisprudence as the basis of Iranian law, there are principles that can be used to leave it in case of doubt, in relation to non-fungible tokens due to the lack of a source that indicates sanctity or non-sanctity. There is a doubt in legal and jurisprudential legitimacy that by using the principle of falsity and the principle of authenticity, it is possible to judge the legitimacy of non-fungible tokens, so non-sexual digital tokens have juridical and legal legitimacy as well. Captivability is also subject to the ability to be available and assigned, which non-fungible tokens are also eligible for this criterion because they have the ability to be stored in digital wallets. In order to verify transferability as the fourth criterion, it should be noted that one of the reasons that a person reproduces and offers a work in the form of non-fungible tokens is because it is possible to maintain the intellectual property rights related to his work by selling these works and earn income, the premise of making money in this way is the transfer of non-fungible tokens to the buyer of the work, which in practice is done through the payment of the blockchain network fee and transfer to the person's wallet, as a result, digital tokens are also transferable. 4. Conclusions and Future Research Finally, according to the comparisons made and the arguments expressed, it can be claimed that according to Imami jurisprudence and Iranian law, these tokens are considered property and are included in the property category. Considering the definition of property for non-fungible tokens can be the introduction of new and important research that is suggested by the author of the following topics: The issue of the legitimacy of non-fungible tokens has been examined in this article only using practical principles to solve the initial confusion and it is suggested that experts in Islamic sciences deal with this aspect in a more specialized manner. By discovering the value of these tokens, as mentioned in the conclusion, new legal issues are created that can be investigated in this direction. The topics that can be suggested for research are: 1- matching transactions based on non-representative digital assets with certain contracts, 2- the nature of creating non-representative digital assets‌ is a contract or an event. 3- Since the value of these tokens was determined in this research, it is suggested that the legislator, by introducing a new law or amending the previous laws, consider the laws related to the value of digital tokens as illegal and establish special rules related to it. 4. The identification of these tokens as property is the reason for the authenticity of the transactions whose subject is non-ideal digital tokens (if there are other conditions for the authenticity of the transactions). Create transactions of these tokens.

Kamshat Kindikbayeva, Berik Tulemissov, Yerkebulan Yerzhanov et al.

In the era of globalization, the spiritual and cultural self consciousness of Kazakh youth is undergoing profound transformations. The notions of cognitive identification and poetic consciousness have become decisive frameworks through which young people reinterpret their spiritual identity. The present study aims to analyse the cultural–cognitive identification of Kazakh youth and its interaction with national and global cultural codes. Using cognitive, cultural anthropological and hermeneutic methodologies the research examines the psychological structures of young people and the mechanisms by which they perceive national culture. It also explores questions of cultural relevance and the preservation of spiritual integrity. Scientific results reveal psychological, social and cultural aspects of maintaining national culture and spiritual values in a globalising world. Practically, the work informs strategies and programmes in youth policy and cultural development aimed at preserving the authenticity of national culture. Cognitive analysis examines psychological structures and perception of cultural codes; a cultural anthropological overview explains interactions between national culture and global influences; and a hermeneutic approach allows a deeper analysis of the symbolic world and the structures of poetic consciousness. The study identifies a dynamic relationship between the cultural identification of Kazakh youth and global culture: while young people are open to global cultural flows, internal psychological mechanisms and the values of their social environment play an essential role in preserving the core codes of national culture. The paper proposes mechanisms to safeguard national consciousness and cultural integrity against the pressures of globalization and offers new perspectives on balancing national and global cultures. Its findings will help to identify youth’s cultural cognitive orientations and to develop psychological and social support mechanisms to improve their attitudes towards national culture. Finally, the article proposes concrete steps for national education programmes and cultural policy aimed at fostering spiritual unity among young people.

R. Sh. Davletgildeev, D. V. Zarubin

INTRODUCTION. The history of international law has attracted special attention of domestic legal scholars in the past and continues to arouse high scientific interest among legal researchers at the present time. There is no doubt that this issue will not cease to be the subject of serious scientific research in the future. The ongoing scientific study of issues related to the history of international law is quite justified. On the one hand, the ongoing development of international relations and modern trends in interstate interaction allow us to rethink past events in world life. On the other hand, the future sustainable and effective development of international law is impossible without analyzing the past. This is explained by the fact that turning to the accumulated experience of international legal regulation, as well as to early and subsequent concepts of international law, can provide invaluable assistance in solving the problems facing the world community in modern times. In this regard, there is no doubt about the relevance of the monograph by I.Z. Farkhutdinov «Evolution of International Law – from Westphal to Versailles», published in 2024.MATERIALS AND METHODS. The writing of this work is based both on the approaches and conclusions formulated in the monograph under review, and on the scientific works of domestic and foreign international lawyers on the issues under consideration. In preparing the review, general scientific and special methods of cognition used in legal research were used.RESEARCH RESULTS. The chronological framework of the presented study is designated by the adoption of a few important international documents, which, on the one hand, marked the completion of the Thirty Years' War of 1618-1648 and the First World War of 1914-1918, respectively, and, on the other hand, established certain models of international relations in a specific historical period. The monograph opens with a study of the origin of international law as a regulator of interstate relations. Then it moves on to the problems of the Vienna Congress and the formation of the Vienna system of international relations. The final part of the monograph is entitled «From Sarajevo to Versailles. From the «law of military conflicts» to the First World War.DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. In conclusion, it is noted that the monograph by I.Z. Farkhutdinov «Evolution of International Law – from Westphal to Versailles» is a monographic work with a deep personal view of the history of international law of the 16th-20th centuries, with extensive use of the achievements of related social sciences: history, theory of international relations, political science, which makes a significant contribution to the development of international legal science. On the one hand, it invites to discuss the stated topic, and on the other, serves as a guide for future legal research on the history of international law (both the legal system and science), as well as interstate relations. In addition, it is hoped that subsequent studies of the evolution of international law, covering other geographical and chronological frameworks of its historical development, will be reflected by the author of the monograph under review in his further scientific research.

Noura Erakat

Between 2016 and 2018, Black, Palestinian and Jewish organizations, under the banner of the Demilitarize! Durham 2 Palestine coalition, led a campaign in Durham, North Carolina, that successfully passed a City Council resolution prohibiting US police exchanges with Israel. Based on direct interviews with the activists who led the campaign, this article sets out to trace the history of the Demilitarize! Effort, detailing its chronological developments with an eye on highlighting how Black–Palestinian solidarity continues to function as an anti-imperial analytic. Particularly, it illuminates how settler colonialism unsettles the demarcation between foreign and domestic frontiers thus entwining military and police force expressed in transnational state violence against racialized communities. In doing so, the article will offer and preserve a movement archive developed by activists in Durham. The Demilitarize! Durham 2 Palestine coalition is built upon a rich legacy of local Palestine solidarity activism and its coalitionary efforts focused on a narrative of racialized state violence that directly connected militarized US law enforcement to trainings in Israel thus illuminating the local manifestations of US empire. This article also seeks to use the movement archive to consider how seemingly formidable circuits of state violence that undergird imperial domination are simultaneously vulnerable to attack and dismantlement.

Martin Bermeiser

This article is based on a presentation given by the author at the University of Regensburg in 2009, exploring the topic of "Czechoslovakia between 1945 and 1989." The author acknowledges the subjective nature of historical events and the limitations of retrospective analysis. The article focuses on significant political phenomena during the country's socialist phase, condensed due to the impracticality of representing a heterogeneous history in a few pages. The author emphasizes the need for a relativistic approach and draws from reputable sources to provide a retrospective overview from a German perspective.

Piotr Marciniak

Chambers of commerce play an important role for entrepreneurs and the economy. However, their position, organization, effectiveness and tasks vary from country to country. The challenges of the 21st-century economy require the strengthening of chambers so that they can effectively support business. We should look for possible improvements. Chambers are usually categorized into three main models: Anglo-Saxon, continental and mixed. An additional public (or administrative) model is sometimes added. The analysis of the literature shows, however, that the assignment of chambers to models is sometimes arbitrary or customary. This results in different classification of some countries into specific models – e.g. Poland is assigned to the Anglo-Saxon or mixed model, while Spain is placed in the continental model, although some features of their chambers indicate the properties of the mixed model. The systematic confusion stems from the fact that the current taxonomy is too general to address effectively some of the most important differences between chambers operating in more than 200 countries. But more important is that its design does not provide tools and information that (in the increasing complexity of today’s economy) could support the development of chambers based on the results of comparative research. This article outlines a set of the key differences between British, Polish and Belgian chambers of commerce with several references to Canadian and US chambers. They are all private law and generally listed as Anglo-Saxon model members. But there are major differences between them. It’s important to examine foreign systems when changes to the domestic chambers are considered. It should be clear that there is no single and common framework that can be just replicated. Each country’s history, economy and social norms must be considered before changes are made. This is why comparative studies are the key to finding the best improvements for local needs.

Komutstsi, Liudmila Vladimirovna

This article presents an interdisciplinary conception of genre proposed by the Russian philologist from Balashov, Professor Vladimir Serafimovich Vakhrushev. The feasibility of this task can be mainly seen in two aspects. First of all, Vakhrushev conceives genre as an ideal model generating versatile phenomena not only of discursive, but also of social, cultural, and historical processes. His broad understanding of genre can contribute to the comprehension of the specific speech genres, studied within the specific disciplines isolated so far by their primary tasks, as the elements of a coherent macro system “Genre – Text – Man – Society – Culture – Nature”. Within this macro system, the genres of verbal texts appear to be the structures similar to those of other types, existing elsewhere beyond the realm of art or everyday speech, namely, in nature, history and society. According to V. Vakhrushev, verbal genres and the genres of natural and sociohistorical phenomena share a number of intrinsic properties which are determined by the global ecological law of their adaptation to the ever-changing environment. Secondly, this publication is timed to coincide with Professor Vakhrushev’s 90th anniversary, which falls on September 2022, thus providing a motive for presenting his theoretical legacy to a wider community of linguists, literary scholars, cultural studies scholars, perhaps sociologists, historians, and natural scientists to engage them in a critical discussion. Researchers of speech genres and literary studies may be particularly interested in Vakhrushev’s phenomenological definition of genre and in the ways he is reasoning the isomorphism and the presence of analogies between text genres and the genres of other life forms, such as biology, daily social life and history. 

Maria Stinia

The centenary of the establishment of the first Department of History of the Polish Culture at the Jagiellonian University is a good opportunity to recall the scientific achievements in this discipline. In Krakow, in the second half of the nineteenth century, research on history of education, literature and culture was conducted at the Academy of Arts and Sciences and at the Jagiellonian University. However, it was not until Stanisław Kot’s scientific activity and his appointment as an associate professor that the chair in History of the Polish Culture at the Jagiellonian University was created in 1920. His seminar on the history of culture had enjoyed significant popularity and was attended by many students. In the years 1925–1939 he promoted 22 doctors and four of his students obtained a habilitation. However, due to the political involvement of Kot, the Sanation authorities decided to abolish his chair by introducing a new law on academic schools in 1933.

Z. R. Kochkarova

The article studies the influence of the first cooperative law as regards the enhancement of outreach activities on the part of cooperators, on the self-consciousness of the masses in organizing cooperatives to improve their material and spiritual needs. The article features first-time analysis of the impact of the cooperative law to enhance and institutionalize cooperation. It is shown that cultural and educational department of the Council of the All-Russia congress of cooperative fostered cooperative activities.

V. V. Dolbnya

The relevance of this study is preconditioned by the degree of public danger of corruption in the judiciary, as well as various forms of its manifestation. It requires adequate response measures aimed at strengthening the foundations of counteracting latent corruption in activities of judges, as well as actions to control, minimize and eliminate the consequences of corruption offenses. The article presents a study of existing norms of the Code, specifies relevant corruption manifestation in the work of judges in the exercise of its powers in criminal proceedings, provides examples of some latent corruption in the work of the court and efficient methods to overcome it.

Mohammad Mahdi Forouzanfar, Ziba Shahini, Behrooz Hashemi et al.

We had just started our shift at the emergency department that day, when a highly agitated pale middle-aged woman was brought to the emergency department by the emergency medical service (EMS). Behind her were 5 of her family members, 3 were her children and the other 2 were her sister and her brother in law. She was immediately transferred to the cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) room and cardiac and respiratory monitoring were provided, central venous access was established (due to lack of peripheral vascular access because of severe hypotension), and fluid infusion was performed. During the time these services were provided, a history was taken from her relatives.

Sae Homma, Kunihiko Nabeshima, Izuru Takewaki

An explicit limit for the overturning of a rigid block is derived on the input level of the triple impulse and the pseudo-triple impulse as a modified version of the triple impulse that are a substitute of a near-fault forward-directivity ground motion. The overturning behavior of the rigid block is described by applying the conservation law of angular momentum and the conservation law of mechanical energy (kinetic and potential). The initial velocity of rotation after the first impulse and the change of rotational velocity after the impact on the floor due to the movement of the rotational center are determined by using the conservation law of angular momentum. The maximum angle of rotation after the first impulse is obtained by the conservation law of mechanical energy. The change of rotational velocity after the second impulse is also characterized by the conservation law of angular momentum. The maximum angle of rotation of the rigid block after the second impulse, which is mandatory for the computation of the overturning limit, is also derived by the conservation law of mechanical energy. This allows us to prevent from computing complex non-linear time-history responses. The critical timing of the second impulse (also the third impulse timing to the second impulse) is featured by the time of impact after the first impulse. As in the case of the double impulse, the action of the second impulse just after the impact is employed as the critical timing. It is induced from the explicit expression of the critical velocity amplitude limit of the pseudo-triple impulse that its limit is slightly larger than the limit for the double impulse. Finally, it is found that, when the third impulse in the triple impulse is taken into account, the limit input velocity for the overturning of the rigid block becomes larger than that for the pseudo-triple impulse. This is because the third impulse is thought to prevent the overturning of the rigid block by giving an impact toward the inverse direction of the vibration of the rigid block.

Chubarov I.G.

Significant interregional disparities in socio-economic development are one of the most prominent features of modern China. By initiating market reforms and integration into the global economy in the late 1970s, the Chinese leadership gave a way to the inevitable rise of the gap between best-positioned coastal areas and the rest of the country. In line with the economic theories of growth-poles and the Kuznets Williamson regional development curve, successful development of those regions market would naturally lift the rest of the country as well. As famous Deng Xiaoping quote goes, “let some areas become reach first, then lead and help other regions”. However, 3 passed decades showed that market forces took it too long for spillover effect to develop, if any. Chinese researches provided couple of explanations to that. After coming to power, Xi Jinping set an ideological goal to eliminate poverty by the 100th anniversary of the CPC's founding (2021). Without abandoning of market mechanisms, state strengthened its role in the resources redistribution and spatial development management. Existing 4 national programs for the development of the Western, Central, Eastern and Northeastern macro-regions continued, and a number of new ones were adopted for the Capital region (including Xiong’an New Area), the Yangtze Delta, the Zhujiang Delta (Greater Bay Area), the Yangtze economic belt and the Hainan province. The global-reaching Belt and Road Initiative has its regional inter-China dimension as well.

J. Vel, Y. Zakaria, A. Bedner

Olga P. Fesenko

The paper deals with the reconstruction of speech portrait which is defined as a part of verbal personality, verbalized in the communication process. The purpose of our research is to analyze linguistic features of the cadet’s speech portrait, which are implemented at the phonetic level. The subject of the research is the verbal picture of the cadets of a military institute. The object is its phonetic aspect. The research material is represented with dictaphone recordings of educational discourse (240 hours long). The recordings were made at the lessons of different academics for the first, the second and the third-year cadets (disciplines – Russian Language and Culture of Speech, Military History, Law). 512 cadets took part in the research. The main method is the method of scientific description with the use of the following techniques: observation, continuous sampling, classification, systemization, interpretation and statistical data processing. The cadets’ speech portrait is balanced enough, but it requires certain correction as for accentological and articulatory standards. The cadets made about 70 mistakes, which are typical for the young people’s speech. When modeling the cadets’ speech portrait, the special attention should be given to speech delivery. Its development is one of the factors for successful communication in the military professional sphere. The research results can be the foundation for reconsideration of the content of educational standards in military specialties. The given phonetic aspect of the young people’s speech portrait enlarges existing in linguodidactics concepts about the analyzed phenomenon and contributes to the development of linguodidactics and sociolinguistics. The phonetic features of the cadets’ speech portrait are shared by all the young people.

Piotr M. Pilarczyk

Nieustająca Komisja Obrachunkowa. O kontroli państwowej w Rzeczypospolitej Krakowskiej

Laura Ibarra García

En el mundo de los antiguos mexicanos, las demandas de justicia surgieron principalmente de los pueblos vencidos en las guerras que los ejércitos aztecas emprendían y se dirigieron contra las coacciones y amenazas que representaba el ejercicio del dominio. Los hombres y mujeres sujetos a la dominación se percataron de que la coacción a la que se veían expuestos tenía su origen en los poderes que constituían el orden mismo. Pero ¿en qué consistieron precisamente esas demandas de justicia? ¿Qué era lo que realmente pretendían? El artículo analiza además por qué los aztecas instaban al rey a emprender la guerra y mantener el orden de dominio, y al mismo tiempo pensaban que encarnaba las virtudes consideradas como “más preciosas”, entre ellas la bondad y la justicia. ¿Cómo fue posible que el rey, quien se encontraba en la cúspide del sistema de opresión y quien ordenaba las empresas bélicas que sometían a los demás pueblos, mediante la impartición de justicia pasara a ser el garante de que el débil no se convirtiera en el botín del fuerte? Entre las medidas estructurales a través de las cuales el rey buscaba contrarrestar la explotación del pueblo se encontraban las liberaciones de esclavos. El rey podía decretar o comprar la libertad de aquellos que viéndose incapaces de encontrar su propio sustento decidían venderse como esclavos, pero ¿por qué era esto así? ¿Cómo explicar estos conceptos de justicia?

P. Potter