Arengulist keelepuuet esineb võrdselt üks- ja kakskeelsete laste seas. Kakskeelsetel on aga suurem valediagnoosi risk, kuna kakskeelsete laste veatüübid mittedominantses keeles sarnanevad ükskeelsete keelepuudega laste veatüüpidele. See risk on aktuaalne paljude vene kodukeelega suktsessiivsete kakskeelsete laste jaoks, kes käivad eestikeelses lasteaias. Et toetada keelepuude diagnoosimist, on vaja kakskeelsel valimil normitud teste. Artiklis kirjeldame taolise eestikeelse sõnavaratesti koostamist 4–7-aastastele lastele. Test on välja töötatud rahvusvahelise LITMUS võrgustiku sõnavaratesti põhimõtete ja protokolli alusel. Materjali väljavalimiseks viisime läbi kolm eeluuringut täiskasvanud kõnelejatega ning kaks prooviuuringut lastega. Anname ülevaate ka 2024. aastal läbiviidud normimisuuringu I etapi tulemustest. Tulemuste põhjal võib järeldada, et test on jõukohane nii üks- kui kakskeelsetele lastele, eristab mõlemas rühmas keelepuudega lapsi eakohase arenguga lastest ning sobib koos teiste LITMUS testikomplekti testidega kasutamiseks keelepuude diagnoosimisel ja laste keeleliste oskuste kirjeldamisel.
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"Developing Estonian Cross-Linguistic Lexical Tasks for identifying DLD in bilingual children" *** Developmental language disorder (DLD) is as prevalent among bilingual as among monolingual children (Calder et al. 2022). However, bilinguals face a greater risk of misdiagnosis, as the error types of typically developing bilinguals in their non-dominant language often resemble those of monolingual children with DLD (Boerma, Blom 2017). With the transition to all-Estonian instruction in Estonian education scheduled for 2024–2030, many more successive Russian-Estonian bilinguals face this risk. Language tests developed for and normed on bilingual populations are necessary for more reliable diagnosis of DLD among bilinguals. In this paper, we describe developing such a vocabulary test for children aged 4–7: the Estonian Cross-Linguistic Lexical Tasks (Haman et al. 2015). The test is designed according to cross-linguistic principles set out by the international working group. To select stimuli for the Estonian test, we conducted three preliminary studies with adult speakers: a picture naming task, subjective age of acquisition survey and a complexity evaluation. To test the material’s suitability for children, two pilot studies with mono- and bilingual children were conducted. Stimuli that contributed less to distinguishing DLD and typically developing children were changed (Labent 2023), and the revised test was then used in a norming study. First results of the norming study indicate the test is suitable for use both with monolingual and bilingual children and distinguishes DLD children from typically developing peers in both groups. A correlation analysis with results from the LITMUS Sentence Repetition Task reveals moderate to strong significant correlations between the two test scores, suggesting the tests complement each other well in describing bilingual children’s language skills and diagnosing DLD.
Meanings in basic vocabulary lists are expected to be stable. In the literature, various basic vocabulary lists have been proposed that are founded on various criteria, with stability being a key criterion. However, the stability of basic meanings and to what degree popular lists fit these is rarely assessed for whole language families. In this paper, we define stability as resistance to borrowing, and we examine quantitatively how prone to borrowing the meanings in popular basic vocabulary lists are for the Uralic language family. We refine the methodology for meaning-ranking by calculating a borrowing probability for each meaning and clustering them into groups of more borrowable and less borrowable meanings. Our quantitative analysis provides a higher resolution within the basic vocabulary. While basic vocabulary lists are a good fit for the Uralic family in general, we demonstrate that not all basic meanings are equally stable or necessarily basic in the strictest sense.
Kokkuvõte. Mervi de Heer, Luke Maurits: Uurali keelte baassõnavaraloendite tähenduste stabiilsus. Baassõnavaraloendite tähendustelt eeldatakse stabiilsust. Erialakirjanduses on pakutud välja mitmesuguseid erinevatel kriteeriumitel põhinevaid baassõnavaraloendeid, mille kõigi puhul on võtmekriteeriumiks stabiilsus. Baastähenduste stabiilsust ja seda, mil määral populaarsed nimekirjad neile sobivad, hinnatakse aga harva tervete keelerühmade puhul. Käesolevas artiklis defineerime stabiilsust kui vastupanu laenamisele ja uurime kvantitatiivselt, kuivõrd altid on tähendused populaarsetes baassõnavaraloendites uurali keelkonna puhul laenamisele. Täpsustame täheduste järjestamise metoodikat, arvutades iga tähenduse laenamise tõenäosuse ja rühmitades need laenatavamate ja vähem laenatavate tähenduste rühmadesse. Meie kvantitatiivne analüüs annab baassõnavara piires parema lahutusvõime. Kuigi baassõnavaraloendid sobivad üldiselt hästi uurali keelkonda, näitame, et mitte kõik põhitähendused ei ole võrdselt stabiilsed ega tingimata baatasemel selle sõna kõige kitsamas tähenduses.
Typological and diachronic tendencies of Mordvinic demonstratives Demonstratives, like many other pronouns, belong to the old inherited Uralic vocabulary. However, there is considerable language- and branch-spe- cific divergence. This article examines the typological and diachronic charac- teristics of Mordvinic pronouns within the Uralic context. Typologically and diachronically, the Mordvinic demonstrative system is unique because the same demonstrative has appeared in both pre- and postnominal positions. In the latter case, certain singular and plural demonstratives have secondarily developed into suffixed definiteness markers. This development has in- creased the number of categories involved in definiteness marking. The deictic system of Mordvinic distinguishes between an unambiguous distance-based triad of proximal, medial and distal demonstratives. This pattern is similar to the assumed inherited pattern of the Finnic languages although it is less symmetric in Mordvinic. The speaker-oriented proximal (Erzya ťe, Moksha ťä ‘this; it’: E ńe, M ńä ‘these; they’) and distal pronouns (E M tona ‘that’ : E M nona ‘those’) have singular-plural pairs, whereas the plural form of the endophoric E śe, M śä ‘it’ overlaps with that of the proximal one. Alternatively, analogical plural forms based on the plural marker -t are used. Variation in plural forms increases asymmetry in the deictic system and inflectional paradigms of demonstratives. Consequently, grammars of Mord- vinic present the inflection of demonstratives in divergent ways, either as slightly deficient (Erzya) or meager (Moksha). The diachronic development and increase of functionally specific forms derived from demonstratives is illustrated by the high number of demonstrative-based adverbs. Keywords: Mordvinic (Erzya, Moksha), Uralic, demonstratives, pronouns, adverbs
The second part of the paper deals with 103 exotoponyms which were known to the Votians, including four continent names and four ocean names. They have been used to refer to places in Europe (except Estonia, Finland and Russia), Asia, Africa and America. Among the names of the continents, only Jevroppõ- âEuropeâ is of Russian origin. The attributes of the ocean names are also Finnic, with the exception of the probably Russian Indeimere- âIndian Oceanâ. Not counting the names of continents and oceans, 94 toponyms have been stored, 50 of them from Europe (53% of the total number of names), 38 from Asia (40%), 6 from Africa and 1 from America. In fact, the number of the place names mentioned in Europe is incomparable. Altogether the exotoponyms of Estonia, Finland and Russia (totally 83), the European toponyms make up three-quarters and Asian ones only more than a fifth of the 178 stored toponyms. The number of African and American toponyms is negligible in comparison with them. Countries or regions denoted by place names that in Russian contain the ending -Ð¸Ñ [-iya], either retain it (e.g. Angl´ija) or transform it to -ia (Germania) or i (Franttsi). Often these toponyms are formed from an ethnonym, e.g. Åemtsaa maa, Å veeda etc. More than a third of the exotoponyms (36 names, or 38%) come from a Votic person, who had sailed on warships from Kronstadt to Germany, Egypt and China. The article discusses 18 biblical names (19%). Kirjutise teises osas käsitletakse 103 vadja eksotoponüümi, mida on kasutatud Euroopa (v.a Eesti, Soome ja Venemaa), Aasia, Aafrika ning Ameerika paikade tähistamiseks. Osa kohanimedest on vadja keeles läänemeresoomepärased, teised aga saadud vene keele vahendusel. Artikli eesmärk on esitada külade kaupa võimalikult kõik väliskohanimed koos variantidega ja analüüsida neid võrdlevalt.
This article presents both a diachronic and synchronic explanation for the occurrence of the suffix -i in Livonian adjectives. The suffix is prevalent among Livonian adjectives and in most cases it can be derived directly from the Finnic suffix *-in(En), such as Courland Livonian roudi ‘of iron’ < *rautain(e̮n).In some Livonian adjectives, however, the suffix is of a secondary character and, therefore, analogical, such as Courland Livonian madāl ~ madāli ‘low; shallow’. Such a secondary spread of the suffix indicates its widened use towards that of a general adjectival marker. Motivations for such a change would be the language-internal need to distinguish between grammatical cases following extensive apocope and syncope, and language-externally the prolonged and deep contacts with Latvian, an Indo-European language with separate paradigms for nouns and adjectives. Kokkuvõte. Patrick O’Rourke: Liivi i-adjektiivide analoogiline areng. Käesolevas artiklis esitletakse nii diakrooniline kui sünkrooniline seletus sufiksi -i esinemisele liivi adjektiivides. Sufiks on valdavas osas liivi adjektiividest ja enamasti saab seda tuletada otse algläänemeresoome sufiksist *-in(En), näiteks kuraliivi roudi ‘raudne’ < *rautain(e̮n).Mõnes liivi adjektiivis on käsitletav sufiks aga sekundaarse iseloomuga ja seetõttu analoogiline, näiteks kuraliivi sõnas madāl ~ madāli ‘madal’. Seda tüüpi sekundaarse sufiksi levimine viitab sufiksi laienenud kasutusele üldise omadussõnalise tunnuse suunas. Motivatsiooni sellisele muutusele on võib-olla pakkunud keelesisene vajadus eristada käändevorme pärast ulatuslikku lõpu- ja sisekadu, ning pikaaegne ja sügav kontakt läti keelega ehk indoeuroopa keelega, milles on eraldi paradigmad nimi- ja omadussõnadele.
"How is agency produced through image and word in the multimodal ”The Rules of Supervised Exchange” comic contract?"
Social service documents, such as ”The rules of supervised exchange”, can be difficult to understand because of the language and terms used in them. One way to make these documents more accessible is transforming them into comic contracts. Using a comic-style format, can help clients better understand the document and the associated agency of the worker and the client. Additionally, it can make communication by public authorities more accessible. Transforming social service documents involves visualization, i.e., including different types of visual elements in the document. Typically, comic contracts include characters and their interaction is visually displayed. Thus, comic contracts are multimodal texts that combine images and words in different ways. Examining comic contracts in social services is important for both clients and workers. Documents should be understandable and clear so that clients know what services are described in the documents, what are the clients’ rights, responsibilities, and obligations, and what is expected of them as actors.
The article analyses traveling conditions in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 16th–17th century. It is aimed at establishing the reasons for the mobility of the GDL citizens in the period in question which were affected by social and economic changes as well as those related to the development of the urban network in the country. Several types of journeys have been distinguished which is indicative of the intensity of population mobility. The general road condition was far from excellent which affected their usability, particularly in wet spells. Attempts to ensure road maintenance and repairs were not equally distributed and not always timely. This was one of the factors accountable for the pace and comfort of traveling. The research also dwells on the everyday life on the road that both the citizens of the country and its visitors experienced as well as issues related to attacks on travellers and highway robberies.
Tämä korpuspohjainen kielikontaktitutkimus käsittelee venäjän kielen mallin mukaisten ainesten (Lars Johansonin termillä: “kopioiden”) taajuutta ja fonologisia piirteitä Suomessa puhutuissa rajakarjalaismurteissa, jotka jakautuvat kuuteen pitäjänmurteeseen. Tutkimuksen aineistona on 1960- ja 1970-lukujen murrehaastatteluista koostuva synkroninen Raja-Karjalan korpus. Raja-Karjalan etelä- ja livvinkarjalaiset murteet ovat muusta karjalasta poiketen olleet intensiivisessä kontaktissa suomen kieleen osin jo 1600-luvulta alkaen ja viimeistään vuonna 1944 alkaneena siirtokarjalaisaikana. Suomen kielen oletetaan vaikuttaneen karjalalle tyypillisen venäläisperäisen sanaston käyttöön. Tutkimuskohteena ovatkin sellaiset venäläiskopiot, jollaisia ei esiinny suomen kielessä. Tilastolliset testit osoittivat, että erot venäläiskopioiden taajuuksissa pitäjänmurteissa ovat tilastollisesti merkitsevät: eniten venäläiskopioita on itäisimmässä ja vähiten läntisimmässä pitäjänmurteessa, vaikka informantit eivät ole asuneet alkuperäisillä puhuma-alueilla yli 20 vuoteen. Tulos vahvistaa leksikon osalta yleisitämerensuomalaisen hypoteesin, jonka mukaan venäjän vaikutuksen voimakkuus on jatkumon kaltaista lännestä itään. Myös fonologisen analyysin tulokset noudattelevat tällaista jatkumoa: suomen kielen fonotaksiin kuulumattomia konsonantteja esiintyi eniten itäisimmässä ja vähiten läntisimmässä pitäjänmurteessa. Sen sijaan vokaaleissa ei esiintynyt tällaista jatkumoa, mutta niiden laadussa on jälkiä kontaktista sekä venäjän pohjoismurteisiin että yleiskieleen.
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"Language contacts of Border Karelian dialects in the light of frequency and phonology of Russian copies"
This article presents a corpus- and usage-based study on the contacts of Border Karelian dialects from the point of view of Russian-origin words (copies, in Lars Johanson’s terminology) and their phonological features. The aim of the study is to describe the contacts between Border Karelian, i.e. partly mixed Southern and Olonets Karelian dialects, Finnish and Russian by comparing the dialects of six parishes as reflected in the synchronic spoken-language corpus of Border Karelian.
The dialects of Border Karelia were spoken until World War II in the easternmost part of Finland. They are distinguished from other varieties of Karelian by the strong influence of Finnish; this began already in the 17th century, and strengthened after 1944, when Border Karelia was ceded to the Soviet Union and its inhabitants were resettled in other parts of Finland. The material of the corpus of Border Karelian has been recorded after the resettlement, from informants who no longer lived in their original home regions.
The study focuses on Russian copies that are a conventionalized part of Karelian and do not occur in Finnish. The statistical tests indicated that differences in the frequencies of these words are statistically significant between the original parish dialects; the easternmost dialect has the most Russian copies, and the number of copies decreases from east to west with each successive parish. The results confirm the general hypothesis of Finnic language varieties as a continuum, on which the effect of Russian gradually grows as one moves east. The continuum is geographical, and thus Olonets Karelian dialects do not have more Russian copies than Southern Karelian dialects, opposite to the assumptions. Accordingly, the results of the phonological analysis show that features which deviate from the phonotactics of Finnish are most frequent in the easternmost dialects and rarer in the west. The features of vowels indicate that all Border Karelian dialects have had intense contact with both North Russian dialects and Standard Russian.
In conclusion, the lexical and phonological impact of Russian on Border Karelian, increasing gradually from west to east, can be detected in the speech of Border Karelian informants even two decades after their resettlement to a Finnish-speaking environment.
The most traditional approach of medievalists to articulate classification of pre-modern European societies is to consider whether particular pre-modern society is feudal or not. However I argue that this approach is quite complicated because of ambiguity and polysemy of the term. There are at least several Marxist and non-Marxist alternatives instead. Transcending the horizon of debates about feudalism proposes more creative possibilities and enlarges analytical capacities. Although discussion about the notorious Asiatic mode of production seems obsolete nevertheless there are other more promising and up-to-date concepts like the tributary mode of production, patrimonialism versus feudalism dichotomy or the so-called type/model of early Central European state (the system of Ius Ducale). The application of the concept of the African mode of production in the case of typology of some European pre-modern peripheral societies despite of its astonishing etymology also is plausible. Another perspective way of elaboration comparative researches of pre-modern European peripheries is combining Marxist and non-Marxist concepts (like patrimonialism and the tributary mode of production, for example). I would also like to emphasize that in some cases in order to develop adequate typological concepts the combining of evaluation of internal (evolving of socioeconomic structures) as well as estimation of external impact is inevitable.
Tapaustutkimuksemme tarkoituksena on selvittää muutaman foneettisen piirteen ja vieraan aksentin yhteyttä suomen kielessä. Analysoimme ilmiötä kuulijatestillä, akustisin mittauksin ja kirjoittajien tekemin kuulonvaraisin havainnoin. Puhujina ovat varsin edistyneet suomenpuhujat, jotka puhuvat suomea toisena tai vieraana kielenään. Tuloksemme antavat uutta tietoa vieraan aksentin ja foneettisten piirteiden yhteyksistä sekä tarjoavat avauksia jatkotutkimukselle. Tutkitut piirteet ovat pitkien vokaalien etäisyydet, äännekestot, perustaajuuden (f0) vaihteluväli, f0:n vaihtelun jyrkkyys ja keskihajonta sekä artikulaationopeus. Tuloksemme osoittavat, että kaikilla piirteillä on yhteys vieraaseen aksenttiin. Sekä syntyperäisyyden kategorian että aksenttipiirteiden voidaan sanoa muodostavan jatkumon, jonka yhdessä päässä on L1-kaltainen ääntämys ja toisessa päässä selvät poikkeamat siitä. Päiden välille asettuvat hienovaraisemmat poikkeamat, joita yksittäin tarkasteltuna saattaa olla vaikea määritellä L2-piirteiksi. Vokaalietäisyysja kestopoikkeamien yhteys aksenttiin on selvempi kuin f0-piirteiden ja artikulaationopeuden. Vokaalietäisyyksiä koskevat tuloksemme antavat ymmärtää, että äännelaatujen syntyperäisen kaltainen hallinta on hyvin vaikeaa myös varsin edistyneille L2-puhujille. Aiempiin tutkimustuloksiin verrattaessa havaintomme ovat samansuuntaiset: yksittäisten äänteiden laatuun liittyvillä poikkeamilla ja äänteiden kestoon liittyvillä poikkeamilla on selvin yhteys vieraaseen aksenttiin.
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"The connection between phonetic features and foreign accent in Finnish"
The aim of this case study is to research the connection between phonetic features and perception of foreign accent in Finnish. The phenomenon is analyzed with a listener test, acoustic measurements and auditory observations by the researchers. The speakers are very advanced L2 speakers of Finnish. The results are compared regarding certain phonetic features. These features are distances between long vowels, sound and syllable durations, pitch (f0) range, mean absolute slope and standard deviation for f0, and articulation speed. The results give new information not only on the perception of foreign accent but also on the pronunciation of advanced L2 learners of Finnish and their L2 learning paths.
From the results we can conclude that all the features have an impact on foreign accent and all the features distinguish L1 and L2 speakers from each other to some extent. The category of native-likeness forms a continuum where L1-Finnish native speakers, bilingual Finland-Swedish speakers and L2-speakers who have learned Finnish after puberty take different positions. The effect on accent seems to be clearer for vowel distances and deviations in duration than for f0 features and articulation speed. Differences in vowel distances made a moderate distinction between the L2 speakers, and this feature seems, therefore, to be a promising measure for native-likeness among L2 speakers. The effects of vowel distances on perceived accent should, however, be examined in further studies with larger speech material and different methods.
Results on vowel distances imply that native-like sound qualities are difficult to attain even for very highly advanced L2 speakers. When comparing the results with earlier studies, our observations are alike: deviations in the quality of individual sounds and deviations in sound duration have the most obvious connection to perception of foreign accent.
When the World War I began Lithuania was on the vanguards of the military operations. Around 60,000 Lithuanians were recruited in the Russian Army and employed on the operational fronts of the war. However, they were not blind performers of Tsarist ambitions, but, as The Amber Declaration showed, nurtured political ambitions of their own. The document issued on 4/17 August 1914 was signed, inter alia, by the patriarch of national credo, Jonas Basanavičius , and clearly affirmed the Lithuanian ideals, i.e. the aim of unifying Lithuania with Lithuania Minor then in German hands and the awarding of an autonomous status to a united Lithuania within the Russian Empire. This article tackles an enticing moment in the process of national rebirth, the Congress of the Representatives of the Lithuanian Military Officers of the Romanian Front held in Bender (Tighina), in southern Bessarabia, on 1-3 November 1917, calling for the creation of a Lithuanian national state. How this congress and the proclamation it issued fitted into the general frame of self-determination movements and Lithuanian national revival of 1917-1918, which led to the rebirth of the Lithuanian state? Who were the conveners and the participants to this congress? What arguments did they put forward in their national-building claims? What role did it play on the pathway to Lithuanian independence? Overlooked in most of the Lithuanian historical treatises, the Congress of the Representatives of the Lithuanian Military Officers of the Romanian Front in Bender City had in fact of greater significance than it allows to be understood when counting solely the relatively lower visibility of its leaders or the direct institutional lineage to the proclamation of independence.
Estonian offers several means for expressing narrow focus, including a choice between a syntactic strategy resulting in marked constituent order, and a prosodic strategy resulting in marked nuclear accent placement. The present study examines the usage of the different focus-marking strategies in spontaneous dialogues, with the primary aim of verifying the hypothesis that when either the syntactic or the prosodic strategy must be used, the prosodic strategy is preferred. The results show an overwhelming preference for keeping both the constituent order and the accent placement unmarked. In the relatively small number of cases where either the syntactic or the prosodic strategy must be chosen, a slight preference for the prosodic strategy can be observed. There also exists a minor strategy of focus fronting, whereby both the constituent order and the nuclear accent placement are marked; the role of this strategy requires further study.
Kokkuvõte. Heete Sahkai: Kitsa fookuse väljendamine eestikeelses suulises dialoogis. Eesti keel võimaldab väljendada kitsast fookust muuhulgas nii moodustajajärje kui primaarse lauserõhu asukoha abil. Artiklis vaadeldakse kitsa fookuse väljendamist reisibüroo dialoogides peamise eesmärgiga kontrollida hüpoteesi, et suulises kõnes eelistatakse süntaktilisele fookuse väljendamisele prosoodilist. Tulemused näitavad tugevat eelistust lausungite suhtes, kus on samaaegselt nii markeerimata moodustajajärg kui ka markeerimata prosoodia. Juhtumeid, kus tuleb valida kas markeeritud moodustajajärg või markeeritud prosoodia, on suhteliselt vähe ning nende põhjal võib järeldada, et prosoodiline markeerimine on tõepoolest mõnevõrra eelistatud. Edasist uurimist nõuab andmestikus vähesel määral esindatud lausealguline fookus, mille puhul on markeeritud nii moodustajajärg kui primaarse lauserõhu asukoht.
Võtmesõnad: fookus; moodustajajärg; lauserõhk; eesti keel
The paper deals with micro- and macrostructural static and dynamic narrative characteristics in specifically language-impaired (SLI) Russian-speaking preschool children and their typically-developing (TD) peers. The study was based on experimental data that included storytelling and retelling elicited by means of wordless picture sequences. First, individual measures of story structure, episode com- pleteness, internal state terms, story productivity, lexical diversity, and syntactic complexity, as well as the percentage of linguistic dysfluencies and errors, were evaluated and compared between the experimental and control groups. Second, the impact of such factors as session (1st vs. 2nd), story complexity, and mode (telling vs. retelling) on the dynamic variation of micro- and macrostructural narrative measures was evaluated. Our results highlighted essential dynamic differences between the samples from the perspective of narrative structure, structural complexity, grammaticality, and vocabulary.
The areas of the distribution of Indo-European loanwords in Finnic dialects are described on many lexical maps of the Atlas Linguarum Fennicarum and the Atlas Linguarum Europae . The maps of those atlases offer an opportunity to follow the post-formational contacts of the languages. The analysis of the spread of loanwords makes it possible to find the main routes and centres of Indo-European innovations in Finnic dialects and discuss the reasons for the different sources of the influences. Sometimes, the Finnic area has been a boundary zone for several widespread Indo- European stems coming from different directions. Often the area distribution of dialect words is etymologically suggestive, but the source language depends on the concept. The differences in the use of stems with the same Indo-European origin in different Finnic languages may, at least partly, be due to the words having been borrowed at different times and from different donor languages. Kokkuvote. Vilja Oja: Indoeuroopa laensonade levikust laanemeresoome keelte murretes. Koigi laanemeresoome keelte murdesonu koos on kaardistatud keeleatlastes “Atlas Linguarum Fennicarum” ja “Atlas Linguarum Europae”. Murdesonade levilad ei kattu enamasti keelealadega. Atlaste kaartidel naeme alasid, kus eesti murretes on levinud (alam)saksa, rootsi, lati ja vene laensonad, soome murretes rootsi ja vene laenud ning isuri, vadja, karjala ja vepsa keeles vene laenud voi samad germaani alguparaga sonad nagu soome voi eesti keeles. Palju indoeuroopa laene seostub kaubandussuhetega ja siinmail valitsenud voorvoimudega. Laenuallika maaratlemisel arvestatakse sona sisu ja laenamise aega. Osa rootsi sonu on eesti, karjala, isuri ja vadja murretesse laenatud soome keelest. Saksa sonu on isuri ja vadja murretesse levinud soome ja eesti keelest. Saksa laenudel liivi keeles leidub latiparaseid jooni. Sonalevikud naitavad, et soome keel kuulub sagedamini laane, karjala ja vepsa murded ida mojusfaari. Eesti ja liivi keeles on laene molemast suunast. Isuri ja vadja murretes kajastuvad kolme naaberkeele – soome, eesti ja vene mojutused. Marksonad : murdesonavara, indoeuroopa laenud, keeleatlased, laanemeresoome keeled