Constantine of Preslav’s Učitel’noe evangelie was written at the end of the ninth century but came down to us in only four full, much later, copies from the twelfth (the single East Slavonic manuscript [S]) to the fourteenth century (the other three South Slavonic manuscripts [G, H, W]). Copies are both scarce and distant in time and place as well as different in script from their lost (Glagolitic) protograph, with the result that scribal errors are inevitable, yet not always noted. The article proposes three methodological approaches to reconstruct some of the lexemes distorted by the manuscript tradition, even in passages without an attested Greek source text. The first approach relies on variant readings in situations that lack a Greek parallel. In cases that lack variant readings, the second method is applied, which considers references and allusions to Biblical or patristic texts to elucidate the meaning behind sometimes incomprehensible phrases. The third approach counts on the very meaning of the respective portion of text (i.e., the direct context of a word) and the rhetorical techniques used in it.
Slavic languages. Baltic languages. Albanian languages
The article is a comparison of diminutives and functionally similar lexical
units in Serbian and Russian languages (hereinafter SL and RL).
Crosslinguistic lexical comparison is conducted as a preparation for a large
bilingual Serbian-Russian dictionary, which is a part of the project on
comparative lexicology and lexicography. The article deals with the
lexico-semantic category, which in the SL consists of the two subcategories,
diminutives and terms of endearment, while in the Russian linguistic
tradition it is united under the name diminutives. Lexical units of this
group consist of motivated derivatives formed by affixation with a common
primary semantics of diminution in relation to the norm. In terms of
grammar, this group consists mainly of nouns, followed by adjectives and
adverbs, as well as diminutive verbs in Serbian. The analysis of lexical
items beginning with the letters A and B with qualifiers дем.
‘diminutives’, хип. ‘a term of endearment’ or у дем. значењу ‘in diminutive
meaning’ from the one-volume Dictionary of the Serbian Language of Matica
Srpska (2018), as well as their potential equivalents in the RL, apart from
classification differences, reveals a number of inconsistencies at the
level of functions and pragmatics of the units in SL and RL, which make
their lexicographic representation difficult. Although the frequency of
diminutives is higher in RL, the formal equivalent of the SL derivative is
sometimes expressed through a synonym (a synonym of the derivative word is
searched for and its diminutive form is built), a hyperonym or a syntagm. In
the Russian part of the dictionary, the difference between meanings of
diminutives and terms of endearment may be neutralized, since Russian
derivatives carry a whole paradigm of potential connotations, which are
actualized only in communicative situations. Not all communicative
situations coincide with those in SL - for example, in RL the use of
diminutives in polite communication is known. The lexicographic problem lies
not only in finding a suitable congruent form, but also in the fact that by
identifying lexemes in the dictionary one can impose on the Serbian lexeme
connotations from RL that it did not possess in SL. An additional difficulty of semantics is related to the adequacy of interpretation of
diminutives in SL formed from polysemantic words. Namely, it is not always
obvious whether “diminution” refers to one of several separated meanings or
to all meanings, because there is no qualifier referring to it, there is no
illustration of usage, and the electronic corpus of SL does not provide an
adequate number of usage examples. The paper also describes the problem of
possible narrowing of the meaning of a lexeme. Finally, the stylistic status
of the units is unequal: in RL derivatives with diminutives and / or meaning
of subjective evaluation belong mainly to the verbal and colloquial style
(and are limitedly recorded in dictionaries), while in SL diminutives are
“accepted” in the language and dictionary, which means that they demonstrate
a higher degree of lexicalization. The problem of representing diminutives
and other lexical structures in a bilingual dictionary should be considered
on a broader linguistic material and at the level of the methodology of
bilingual lexicography.
The article analyses the content, structure and functional purpose of an academic paper which examines the multilingualism of refugees from Ukraine who moved to Poland after the full-scale invasion by Russia. The methodological basis of the study is characterized, and the effectiveness of using the method of language biographies and questionnaires is emphasized.
Computational linguistics. Natural language processing, Semantics
In metalexicographical research, experts have judged the performance of technologies such as OpenAI Generative Pretrained Transformer (GPT) in lexicographic production tasks as promising yet inferior to human lexicographers. It remains unclear whether this perceived inferiority limits the effectiveness of AI-generated lexicography in resolving practical language doubts. Accordingly, this study compares the effectiveness of AI-generated definitions to those from the Macmillan English Dictionary (MED) in resolving vocabulary doubts in a multiple-choice reading task designed to test lexical knowledge. It involves 43 L2 English users in the third year of an English studies degree at a Spanish university. Students provided with MED definitions performed better on the reading task than those without access to definitions. However, there was no significant difference between the performance of students with either MED definitions or without definitions altogether, and those provided with AI-definitions. The implications of these findings are discussed along with avenues for further research.
Language standardization has historically been a critical area of inquiry in language policy and planning (LPP) research. This is a political matter, which contributes to “more (and hierarchical) heterogeneity” rather than linguistic homogeneity (Gal 2006: 171). The paper empirically explores extralinguistic arguments, which are used by language professionals (planners, academics, educators) in mainstream media discourse. This public discourse is initiated by the launch of an Estonian “superdictionary” in 2019 (see Tavast et al. 2020), and its public reception. By using Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) as a method, the paper also provides insight into the discursive construction of language as such and (Standard) Estonian by different LPP actors. Above all, it aims to understand the issues of power and authority in language standardization. The discourse illustrates the paradigmatic change in standardization and lexicography: from including selected language samples to the acceptance of non-elite language variants and varieties. This change has generated a polarization of stance among language professionals, and similar discursive moves, e.g., references to the past and future dangers, metaphors and other comparisons are used.
Kokkuvõte. Kadri Koreinik: Keelevälised argumendid 21. sajandi keelekorraldusdiskursuses: „supersõnaraamat“ ülalt-alla ja alt-üles keelekorralduse vahel. Keele standardimist peetakse keelepoliitika ja -korraldusuuringute üheks keskseks huviobjektiks. Standardimine ehk normimine on poliitiline valik, mis selmet keelelist homogeensust luua, tekitab hoopis heterogeensust, mis on olemuselt hierarhiline: normikeelt kas osatakse või mitte (Gal 2006). Artiklis uuritakse keeleväliseid argumente, mida kasutavad peavoolumeedias normimise üle arutlemiseks keelega professionaalselt seotud inimesed (keelekorraldajad, -teadlased, haridustegelased). Uuritav diskursus lähtub nn sõnastikureformist ja selle retseptsioonist. Analüüsimeetodina kasutatakse kriitilist diskursusanalüüsi, mis võimaldab süvitsi uurida, kuidas avalikkuses konstrueeritakse keelega, sh eesti kirjakeelega seotud tähendusi. Lisaks aitab analüüs mõista võimu ja domineerimise küsimusi keele normimisel. Diskursuses kajastub paradigmaatiline muutus, mis väärtustab kasutus- ja korpuspõhist lähenemist leksikograafias, aga ka keele normimisel. Kuigi muutus on löönud „keeleinimesed“ kahte lehte, kasutatakse poolt- või vastuargumentides samu võtteid: viiteid autoriteetidele, keele ohustatusele, metafoore ja teisi võrdlusi.
This paper offers a preliminary study of MS Atheniensis EBE 1089, a neglected lexicographic and grammatical miscellany consisting of several different sections, to be dated between the 13th and the 15th century. Among other texts, this manuscript transmits Phrynichus’ Eclogue and Moeris’ Lexicon. After providing a survey of the contents of this codex, the first part of the article deals with some of its main material features, with a description of its different sections and the scribes who copied them. Additionally, it is argued that the codex as a whole was the product of a single ‘editorial’ project carried out by a certain Μᾶρκος, active in the middle of the 16th century. The second part of the article offers a philological analysis of the folios containing the lexica of Phrynichus and Moeris; that gave the occasion to develop some new thoughts on their texts and manuscript traditions.
Greek language and literature. Latin language and literature, History of the Greco-Roman World
Abstract This paper proposes a leader multi-follower optimization for energy transactions in the multi-microgrid systems. The transactions of microgrids with the distribution network operator can be provided by energy internet. The distribution network operator can buy/sell energy from/to the microgrids. The upper-level of the optimization is modeled as a multi-objective optimization in which the profit of distribution network operator, independence performance, and energy not supplied of the system have been optimized using the lexicography approach. In the lexicography approach, two-steps for objectives are defined. In the first step, the profit of the distribution network operator is maximized, while the independence performance index and energy not supplied of system have been optimized in the second step. In the lower-level, microgrids are considered as followers to minimize their costs. The uncertainty of renewable generation and market prices are applied to the model using scenario-generation and scenario-reduction technique. The proposed non-linear bi-level model is transformed to the linear single-level optimization using the Karush-Kuhn-Tucker optimality conditions and strong duality theorem. The proposed model is tested on the standard case study and the results show the efficiency of the proposed model in terms of independence index, energy not supplied, and greenhouse gas emissions.
Recently, a number of methods have been developed that make it possible to image the elastic properties of soft tissues. Because certain types of tissues such as malignant lesions, for example, have elastic properties that are markedly different from surrounding tissues, elasticity imaging could provide a significant adjunct to current diagnostic ultrasonic methods. Further, elasticity imaging techniques could be used to augment the study of tissues that change their elastic properties, such as skeletal and cardiac muscle. In this paper, we survey some of the previous work done in the related field of biomechanics, and we review measurement techniques from the 1950s to the 1980s. Different approaches to elastic imaging and signal processing are then discussed and a lexicography for elastic imaging is introduced. It is hoped that this nomenclature will provide a meaningful categorization of various approaches and will make evident the inherent parameters displayed and conditions applied in deriving the resulting images. Key assumptions and signal processing approaches are also reviewed. Finally, directions for future work are suggested.
Based on researching the reference literature, archival materials, and available sources, this paper describes the reflection of the personal name of the author of the first Croatian novel on Croatia’s toponymy and chrematonymy. Special attention is given to historical circumstances, motivation, naming principles, and impacts on the formation of Velebit’s present-day oronymy, whose examples frequently point to the issue of the standardisation of geographical names, the lack of a legislative solution that would precisely stipulate the landform naming procedure, and the necessity to establish a national-level expert body that would decide on the official figures of Croatian toponyms that are recorded on maps. The section on hodonymy and chrematonymy chiefly examines the wider Zadar region, where the reflection of the writer’s personal name is clearly the most widespread.
Proper names are always defined in relation to common nouns. No agreement on their definition has yet been reached. Following Philippe [2020: 445], the study explores the hypothesis that proper names are not nouns but borrow from the semantics, morphology and syntax of nouns, through a contrastive analysis of denominal verbs originating from proper names and verbs originating from common nouns. Because morphological or phonological variables cannot account for the difference between these two categories, the focus is on the correlation between the type of the base and the metonymic processes involved in verbal derivation, following Janda [2011]. The analysis finds that the number of metonymic processes at stake during denominal verbal derivation depends on the type of the base, and that verbs originating from proper names need an extra cognitive step during verbal derivation. However, this difference between proper names and common nouns may rather be linked to derivational semantic constraints than to a definitional difference between proper names and common nouns.
Данная статья представляет результаты исследования функционирования метафоры
«Чрезмерное количество действия — Shower», реализующей аспектуальную семантику чрезмерного
действия, в английских художественных текстах. В ходе исследования с целью выявления механизма
образования метафоры была проанализирована ее семантическая структура, а именно, соотношение
между источником (source) и целями/мишенями (target), метафорические проекции (mappings).
В результате было выявлено, что языковая единица Shower используется метафорически для называния
чрезмерного действия на основе обоих своих значений — прямого (ливень) и вторичного (приспособление
для мытья). Были установлены пять основных элементов метафорических проекций, которые реализуются
при метафорическом употреблении Shower; была составлена детальная классификация существительных,
сочетающихся с Shower, при передаче значения чрезмерного действия. Было установлено, что среди
них преобладают существительные, называющие тяжелые или легкие объекты, предметы материального
благополучия, отношение. Существительные, называющие эмоции и время, редко встречаются в функции
цели/мишени. Также с целью выявления механизма функционирования данной метафоры были описаны
условия контекста — синтаксические структуры, в которых регулярно употребляется метафора,
предлоги, с которыми сочетается Shower, а также сопровождающие языковые явления, среди которых
регулярными являются: а) использование в ближайшем контексте нескольких других метафор Воды,
подтипов более общей концептуальной метафоры «Чрезмерное количество действия — Water» (“burst”
of metaphors); б) приобретение словом, имеющим положительную семантику, негативного значения
при функционировании в качестве цели/мишени для Shower (axiological clashes). Анализ всех
перечисленных выше особенностей позволил выявить прагматический потенциал данной метафоры
и установить ее превалирующее отрицательное оценочное значение; а также позволил сделать
предположение, что концептуальная метафора «Чрезмерное количество действия — Shower» продуктивна
в английском языке и является культурно специфичной.
Word sense disambiguation assumes word senses. Withinthe lexicography and linguistics literature, they areknown to bevery slippery entities. The first part of the paperlooks at problemswith existing accounts of ‘word sense’ and describesthe various kinds of ways in which a word's meaning candeviate from its coremeaning. An analysis is presented in which wordsenses areabstractions from clusters of corpus citations, inaccordance withcurrent lexicographic practice. The corpus citations,not the wordsenses, are the basic objects in the ontology. Thecorpus citationswill be clustered into senses according to thepurposes of whoever or whatever does the clustering. In theabsence of suchpurposes, word senses do not exist.Word sense disambiguation also needs a set of wordsenses todisambiguate between. In most recent work, the sethas been takenfrom a general-purpose lexical resource, with theassumption that thelexical resource describes the word senses ofEnglish/French/...,between which NLP applications will need todisambiguate. Theimplication of the first part of the paper is, bycontrast, that wordsenses exist only relative to a task. Thefinal part of the paper pursues this, exploring, bymeans of asurvey, whether and how word sense ambiguity is infact a problem forcurrent NLP applications.
This paper offers an account of a university course in Lexicography, designed particularly for advanced EFL students. The discussion and accompanying material derive from
around fifteen years of the author's experience in developing and teaching this course. The aims of
the paper are twofold: firstly, to draw attention to the fact that lexicography today is no longer just
'the art and craft of' dictionary making of yesteryear but a fully-fledged applied linguistic discipline, with its own theory, methodology and practice, some of which is teachable as a dedicated
academic subject; and secondly, to encourage the teaching of practical and theoretical lexicography
to university students by putting forward concrete proposals. The exposition is divided into five
parts, as follows: Section 1 brings some opening remarks, including that on the scientific status of
lexicography; Section 2 reviews theoretical aspects regarding the design of this course; Section 3
describes practical aspects regarding the implementation of the course; Section 4 examines critical
aspects regarding the evaluation of the course; and Section 5 recapitulates the main points of the
paper and projects the modifications to the course in the future.
Philology. Linguistics, Languages and literature of Eastern Asia, Africa, Oceania
Nowadays there are a lot of modern technologies in electronic lexicography: speech synthesis technology, cross-referencing between dictionary modules, spell-checking functions, etc. The increasing availability of online information has necessitated intensive research in the area of automatic text summarization within the Natural Language Processing community. Belarusian scientists are also interested in this sphere and new lexicographical approaches for creating a linguistic database are shown in the paper. The authors present English-Belarusian-Russian electronic dictionary TechLex. This is the project of the 2nd English Department and the Department of Software for Information Systems and Technologies of the Belarusian National Technical University. The linguistic database of the dictionary is compiled not by the traditional method of processing a large number of paper dictionaries and combining the received translations, but by sequential processing of scientific and technical English-language periodicals. While the designing the dictionary the authors have taken into account the analysis of modern electronic multilingual translation dictionaries and created a client-server application in the Java programming language. The client part of the system contains a mobile application for the Android operating system, which has been tested on tablets and smartphones with different screen diagonals. The interface of the TechLex dictionary is designed taking into account the possibility of adding new subject areas and filling them with appropriate lexical material. The main advantage of our dictionary is that it is the first technical multilingual electronic dictionary having a Belarusian version.