The written and oral culture of the Baltic indigenous peoples underwent gradual changes in the late 18th and 19th centuries. According to Wolfgang Welsch, vision is linked with knowledge and science, while hearing relates to faith and religion (Welsch 1996: 248) – this distinction shaped the interaction between oral and written culture. Among Baltic peasants, oral culture remained dominant until the mid-19th century, with the German clergy continuing to control the information space despite ongoing social change. During the Enlightenment, secular Latvian literature began to emerge. Gotthard Friedrich Stender (1714–1796), a German pastor from Kurzeme, laid the foundation for Latvian secular prose, poetry, and popular science literature. However, his songs, the so-called ziņģes, proved more influential than his prose. The songs combine entertainment with moral instruction on drinking, social harmony, and education. Around the turn of the 19th century, major transformations occurred: the territory of present-day Latvia was incorporated into the Russian Empire, Napoleon’s campaigns threatened the region, serfdom was abolished, and a Latvian school network was created. The public demanded information, which was shared through church sermons and, from the 1820s onward, through Latvian newspapers. Supported by Baltic German pastors, the first generation of Latvian intellectuals emerged. By the 1830s, they actively sought to merge oral and written traditions, adapting elements of the Baltic Germans’ peasant Enlightenment project for the purposes of the Latvian national awakening. This paper examines how three key events of the early 19th century – Napoleon’s campaigns and Latvian recruitment into the Russian army, the abolition of serfdom, and the rise of Latvian schools – were reflected in Latvian songs. It analyzes songs published in Latvian newspapers, in books, and on flyers, and it explores the differing perspectives of Baltic Germans and Latvians.
Introduction. In recent decades, researchers have been actively studying written sources of the past stored in central and regional archives across the country. G. F. Miller’s work “Description of the Siberian Kingdom...” presents a portrayal of the life of the indigenous peoples of Siberia, based on the author’s personal observations. Particular attention in the source is given to information about the Ostyaks – descriptions of their culture, daily life, religion, and interactions with other peoples inhabiting Siberia. The analysis of the scholar’s work is of great importance in the context of preserving the country’s cultural heritage, which underscores the relevance of this study. The aim of the research is to conduct a historical and cultural overview of the life of the Ostyaks in Siberia based on the chronicle source.
Materials and Methods. The material for the study was the first comprehensive work on the history of Siberia from the late 18th century – “Description of the Siberian Kingdom and All Events That Occurred Therefrom the Beginning, Especially Since Its Conquest by the Russian State to the Present Times” by G. F. Miller. The study integrates linguistic source studies and functional-stylistic approaches, which together constitute a linguo-textological analysis of historical documents. In accordance with these directions, the descriptive method and the method of continuous sampling were applied to conduct the analysis and address the research tasks. In examining the structure of the source, the method of componential analysis was employed to identify the lexical meaning of each lexeme in the text of the document, the totality of which defines its content.
Results and Discussion. The author has conducted a historical and cultural analysis of the ethnography of the Ostyaks, historically inhabiting the territories of Siberia, their culture, religion, daily life, settlement patterns, and interactions with other peoples. By describing the life of the indigenous population of Siberia with reliable accuracy, the scholar has made a significant contribution to the development of Russian historical science.
Conclusion. The research materials contribute to the development of a specific branch of linguistics – linguistic source studies. The most valuable aspect is the analysis of the encyclopedic information presented in the article about the life of the indigenous people of Siberia, described based on the scientist’s personal observations. Furthermore, it has been proven that the scientist’s work can indeed form the source basis for studying the history of Siberia’s formation as an important territory of Russia and deserves special attention from philologists, historians, geographers, ethnographers, and cultural experts.
Ali Hassanzadeh Sarvestani, Seyed Mohammad Reza Seydnorani, Fathollah Tari
The health, efficiency and liquidity of the capital market and especially the stock exchanges are of particular importance. Common stock transactions account for a significant amount of Tehran Stock Exchange transactions, and this issue reveals the importance of careful attention and monitoring of these securities transactions. In addition to protecting the interests of legal investors, the establishment of appropriate regulations and serious monitoring of these transactions will attract new investors. Manipulation of common stock transactions in stock exchanges is one of the common phenomena of these transactions, which brings destructive effects, and supervisory institutions have been and are trying to reduce all types of manipulation. Also, the religion of Islam is full of valuable teachings in the field of transactions. One of these teachings is the prohibition of impurity in transactions. In this article, we are looking for an answer to this question, can some types of common stock transactions be considered as examples of fraud? We have used descriptive-analytical method to answer this question. In the descriptive part of this article, we defined common stock, explained the process of stock trading in Tehran Stock Exchange, the phenomenon of manipulation in common stock trading and Najesh. In the analytical section, we also examined the flow of prohibition of najesh in stock transactions. The result is that according to famous jurists, impurity is forbidden, therefore laws, trainings, mechanisms and crimes should be such that impurity does not occur in the stock trading market, but if impurity occurs and ordinary shares are sold, the sale is valid. But Mukhtar's opinion is that the option to cancel the deal by cucumber is for losers.
M. Chalis M.Chalis, Suhaimi Suhaimi, Sulaiman Sulaiman
This study aims to determine the implementation of religious moderation in Qur'an and hadith learning at State Islamic Senior High Schools in Aceh Province. This research employed a qualitative method, involving nine subjects: three principals and six teachers teaching in three State Islamic Senior High Schools (Madrasah Aliyah Negeri) in three districts and cities in Aceh. The subjects were selected purposively. Data collection were done by interviews, observation, and documentation. The research results indicated that the implementation strategy of religious moderation is conducted through the preparation of lesson plans, integration during the learning, exemplary approach, application of cooperative learning models, and habituation of religious moderation attitudes in the school routine programs. This study found that the implementation policy of religious moderation refers to the Ministry of Religion of the Republic of Indonesia and the 2020-2024 RPJM. In addition, the moderation values implemented in learning Al-Qur'an Hadith include nine values; At-Tawassuth, At-Tasamuh, Ash-Shura, Al-'Itidal, Al-Ishlah, Al-Muwathanah, Al-Qurdwah, Al-La'unf, and Al-'Itiraf al-'urf. The implementation of religious moderation in the schools has some obstacles due to lack of socialization, the heterogeneity of the students' backgrounds, the environment, and inadequate facilities and infrastructure. However, overall, implementing religious moderation in Qur'an and hadith learning is effective.
This paper, dealing with the Greek-Roman theatres, aims to focus on four main issues: 1) the origin and the evolution of the theatre and its social role within the Mediterranean area (Milizia); 2) the importance of the Greek and Roman cultures, which, while conquering new lands, spread their culture, too (Mazzarino); 3) how theatres evolved under the Greeks, and under the Roman Empire (Neppi Modona), and 4) to prove that war, not only destroys people, but, moreover, destroys the entire world. Piro considers war any behavior that tries to subdue people by negating their rights, their religion, and their culture. [1] The fusion of the Greek and Roman cultures left their signs whenever and wherever they arrived. The Greek-Roman theatres are an example of the importance of fusing cultures; a fusion which enriches both the people conquered and the people conquering. While talking about drama, as the expression of social aggregation, Milizia writes: "The Greeks and the Romans are the only people who really knew the very spirit of society." [2] In order to follow its aim, this research wants to give a quick look at the first inhabitants of the Mediterranean coast, so as to understand how trade helped them to share both goods and culture. History is a very important subject, not simply for acquiring information, but, moreover, for getting new experiences from past events. We say that grandparents are a great resource, because they provide children with advice which can help them when something new has to be solved. This is also the role of history, to judge the results of people's behaviour when facing political problems. For this reason, talking about the peoples who lived around the Mediterranean Sea, admiring their archaeological sites, and studying the history of their age will facilitate the understanding of the context in which those peoples lived and had to make important decisions. In so doing, it will be easier to judge the results of their actions, and acquire experience from them. In brief, even though war had at first appeared a means to solve problems related to wellness, patriotism, motherland, goods exchange, religion, language, etc., at last, the great conquerors of the past understood that cooperation among peoples is the best way to achieve prosperity both economically and culturally. Nowadays, we are surrounded by wars in every angle of the world, as if it were the first time that a country refuses to share a land, or refuses to accept foreigners, or complains about either a political or religious creed. So that, during this journey of mine, among the mediterranean peoples of the past, I learned a great lesson; a lesson I hope to transfer to you; a lesson I could understand while admiring the archaeological remains left all around the Mediterranean Sea. So, while looking at them, I realized that those wonders are the result of cooperation and not of hate among peoples of different language, religion and culture; peoples, who at last, understood that war, as Pope Francesco says, is a defeat for everybody. "With war, a senseless and inconclusive venture, no one emerges a winner; everyone ends up defeated, because war, right from the beginning, is already a defeat, always. Let us listen to those who suffer its consequences, the victims and those who have lost everything. Let us hear the cry of the young, of ordinary individuals and peoples, who are weary of the rhetoric of war and the empty slogans that constantly put the blame on others, dividing the world into good and evil, weary of leaders who find it difficult to sit at a table, negotiate and find solutions." [3]
Religious Moderation is one of the Strategic Programs of the Ministry of Religion which is reduced from the 2020-2024 National Medium-Term Development Plan (RPJMN). The Religious Moderation Program was released by the Ministry of Religion to be implemented in all areas of life, including education. Moreover, one of the authorities of the Ministry of Religion is related to religious and religious education. This is the basis for grounding the idea of Religious Moderation in religious and religious education in formal and informal educational institutions. The application of the values of religious moderation is the main key to realizing them. This assumption is based on the empirical conditions of educators in Padangsidimpuan City. Based on this analytical study of educators, there is a need for a Manual for Strengthening Religious Moderation for educators. In addition, this book is needed especially for Islamic Religious Education teachers who are considered to be a solution in increasing the level of knowledge, understanding, and application of the values of religious moderation both in learning Islamic Religious Education and in the context of life in madrasas and Islamic boarding schools. While it is known that the area around Padangsidimpuan City is a mountainous area which is relatively difficult to access online sources of information, even though this book is provided in electronic or digital form. Therefore, not many educators know and can access this book.
1- Abstract
The arrival of Britain in India under the cover of the East India Company at the beginning of the 17th century led to the country’s gaining access to the legendary financial resources in the subcontinent. However, with the British presence in India, the Zoroastrian community of this country, known as the Parsis, also underwent a significant economic transformation. Evidence of the increase in the wealth of the Parsis after the establishment of the British East India Company in the subcontinent is that in the 19th and 20th centuries, with the capital possessed, they set up numerous and large factories in India. Were there any special relations in the economic and professional field between the Parsis of India and the company? This is the question that the present study seeks to answer. In this study, using related historical sources, including works about the Parsis of India as well as compilations about the beginning and implementation of the British East India Company, the reasons for the positive perception of the company leaders of the Parsis are examined using a descriptive-analytical approach. Then, by reviewing the professional life of the Parsis, in two important ports of Surat and Bombay, which were the main points of contact with the company’s employees, examples of the Parsis services to the British East India Company and the privileges donated to the Persis leaders by the British are recounted and analyzed. The results show that the Parsis cooperation with the British government representatives in India was not limited to economic fields and that the British also had the assistance of the Zoroastrian community in the political arena.
2- Introduction
The followers of Zoroastrianism have been known in India from past times as “Farsi” or “Parsi”. In fact, since the annexation of the western parts of India to the Achaemenid Empire, Iranians travelled to these areas. Also, Iranian Zoroastrians, especially their clerics, travelled to India before Islam to propagate this religion for business. But the issue of their migration to India after Islam is mainly based on a poetic story called "Qeṣṣe-ye Sanjān" composed in 1008 AH (1600 AD). The narrator of the story events has been a trusted Zoroastrian priest to Bahman Keyqubad, the story’s composer. Based on this source, after the Arab invasion of Khurasan during the conquest of Iran, the Zoroastrians of a village called Sanjan in north-eastern Iran took refuge in the nearby mountains and spent a hundred years there. Then, they travelled to the island of Hormuz and lived there for fifteen years. "Dib" on the southern shores of the Indus was their next destination, where they remained for nineteen years. Then, they moved to Gujarat and settled in an area that was reminiscent of the former land of Sanjan, where they also spent five hundred years. Therefore, this group of immigrants left India in the middle of the second century AH. The question is, how did the narrator get these exact time intervals?
The editor of Qesse in the introduction of the book indicates the existence of sufficient references to prove the truth of this story. One of the documents he presents is the narration of Baladhuri in "Futuh al-Buldan" in which the people of Kerman fled from the Arab army. But this narration is not applicable to the story of Sanjan. The narration of Baladhuri indicates the escape of a number of people of Kerman in the first half of the first century AH from the Arab army and their departure to Hormuz and the conflict with the Arabs on this island. Baladhuri's words in this regard end with this report: many people of Kerman fled by sea. The existence of many ambiguities in the story caused its rejection by some contemporary Zoroastrian scholars.
However, the story says the adventure of the Parsis refugees in which they asked the Hindu ruler of the region to stay in Gujarat, and he agreed to live there under certain conditions. Among his conditions was: In the language, domination, and clothing of women, the Hindu customs should be considered, and also the means of war should be avoided. Accordingly, the Parsis accorded themselves perfectly to the culture and customs of the environment; this point was probably one of the reasons for the British approach toward them. Karaka writes in this regard: “It is a characteristic of the Persis that they have behaved appropriately to other peoples, even though their beliefs and customs are different, and they have adjusted themselves to the conditions, although the conditions were not according to their desire”. Jonathan Duncan, the British ruler of Mumbai at the beginning of the 19th century, criticized Muslims in a conversation with Abdul Latif Shushtari, comparing them to the Parsis, who easily adapted themselves to the custom and culture of the superior people: “What is the reason that wherever the monarchy of the Muslim exists or a sect of Muslims resides, their work is on the harshness ... unlike other religions which are smooth and gentle?"
On the events of 986 AH / 1587 AD, Badayuni, the historian of the court of Jalaluddin Akbar has reported the presence of Zoroastrians from the city of Navsari in the Gujarat region in the court of this ruler and writes that this powerful ruler ordered that the fire always be kept lit in a certain place. The report shows that in the late 16th century, the city of Navsari near Surat was the main settlement of Zoroastrians in India and since the agricultural conditions of the region met their job and economic needs, they had not migrated to Surat. Although the Parsis lived in this port before the arrival of the Europeans, the increase in their number was closely related to the arrival of European companies in this city.
The endeavour of European countries to penetrate east by sea led the Portuguese Vasco da Gama to become the first European sailor to set foot on Indian soil. Nehru reminds us that this first step was taken after the end of the Muslim rule over Andalusia in 1492 AD. Perhaps from the view of the new Iberian rulers, this move was revenge to conquer the East and spread Christianity in the face of the spread of Islam in Spain. Wasn't that the Portuguese paid special attention to the spread of Christianity in the East, and their violence of the Muslim merchants whom they called the Moors (Spanish Muslims) was unexampled? It is said that the intensity of the Portuguese violence was due to the superiority of the Muslims in trade, while part of it must be attributed to their dissatisfaction with the long Muslim rule in southwestern Europe.
From the Europeans’ point of view, the port of Surat, in the south of Gujarat and on the bank of the navigable Tapi or Tapti River, about 30 km far from the Arabian Sea, was suitable for their ships to travel to India. The knowledge of European capitalists of the geographical location of Surat, which was connected with the Far East countries on the one hand and with the Iranian and Arab ports, on the other hand, encouraged them to build several factories in this port from the second decade of the 17th century. Also, the relative proximity of Surat to Deccan and Gujarat, the centers of cotton cultivation and production in India made the Europeans eager to build factories there. Then, the Portuguese, the Dutch, the French, and the British came to this port and each established a trading company in their own name. The location of Surat made this port the most commercially productive one in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries and was distinguished among Indian ports. This supremacy continued until the rise of Mumbai in the commercial arena, and then Surat was ignored.
Although the British East India Company arrival in Surat after Portugal managed to repel the enemy with military force, the French financial bankruptcy in Surat automatically led to their removal from the port. The company, which ostensibly bore the name of the company and was in fact the British government with shareholders (mainly military personnel), after a while, took over the country's political destiny in addition to monopolizing India's trade.
In this study, the reasons and methods of the East India Company's use of the Parsi society of India, as one of the tools to increase their influence in this land, as well as the type of cooperation of the Parsis with the British and its results for them are discussed. So far, no specific research has been done on this topic; however, numerous works related to the history of the Parsis, as well as writings related to the emergence and decline of the East India Company, contain scattered materials on the subject of this study. The manuscript of “Waqaye-i Hind” by Abdul Latif Shushtari at the beginning of the 19th century, which deals with the events in India, especially the island of Mumbai, has useful and relevant information in this regard. Shushtari, who was on behalf of the company, overseeing the affairs of Iranian businessmen in Mumbai, met daily with the island's Parsi leaders and recorded valuable notes of their relations with the company's leaders. The History of the Parsis, a work from the second half of the 19th century, also contains useful information on the subject of this article, due to the proximity of the author's era to the period of intimate relations between the Persians and the British. An article with the title Pyarsis and the British also contains notes on the relations between the Parsis and the East India Company which Hinnells published in 1978 in the journal of Kama Institute.
3- Materials and Methods
have been the main sources of the author for writing this descriptive-analytical article.
4- Discussion of Results and Conclusions
The British East India Company made its way to India later than Portugal, the Netherlands, and France in the early 17th century, but soon overtook European rivals and pursued its capitalist goals singly. In the meantime, the British needed the help of the natives of India to achieve their goals. People with abilities in business, sea voyages, knowledge of local products and facilities, knowledge of local leaders and celebrities, skills in intermediary in transactions and linguistics were among the characteristics of Parsis. On the other hand, the Zoroastrian community of India was eager to cooperate with the East India Company in order to be more successful in business, obtain various goods, and receive support during business trips. Although Parsis did not gain a high position in the company and even export goods directly to Europe, and the company's leaders viewed them as instrumental and a means of profit, in order to continue their cooperation, they were constantly provided with business opportunities and more income. The British acquisition of advanced technology in the textile industry, their progress in land and sea transportation, and entry into Asian markets, relying on the military in the 19th century, also had a positive impact on Parsis business. Their cooperation with the British for more than three centuries provided them with more wealth than they had imagined. The wealth they accumulated in the 18th century and the first half of the 19th century through various means, especially trade, was invested in the industry from the second half of this century. In the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century, they held half of the managerial and regulatory positions of Mumbai factories. They owned India's first steel plant. Some of them violated some of the moral limitations of Zoroastrianism and followed the British way of life to earn more money. At this time, Britain was their homeland. But the Parsis’ dependence on British capitalists also caused them some harm. In the late 19th century, the center of India's foreign trade was moved from the west of India, the center of Parsis’ gathering and life, to the east by the heads of companies; thus Parsis’ role in trade diminished. Opium exports from India to China also declined. New industries entered the world of Indian industry in 1900, and Parsis paid less attention to these industries due to the continued focus on cotton and fabric production. Together, these factors halted the economic growth of Parsis in the second half of the 20th century compared to the previous century. The Parsis’ close and intimate relations with the British also caused them cultural damages such as the loss of religious identity which has been considered and protested by some followers of this religion.
History (General) and history of Europe, History of Asia
This paper examines texts evoking religious conceptions based on the absence of pity (and, a fortiori, of appeal to pity) towards human beings lowered to the status of enemies, both in DAECH magazine, Dar al-Islam, and in Voltaire’s correspondence regarding the punishments Catholics inflicted to the Sirvens. These texts emphasize the importance of problematizing the appeal to pity (which will be done here by looking at indirect argumentation) from the point of view of its content and of its manifestations and analyses, as the link between religion(s) and compassion or pity is not self-evident. The paper examines why there is no appeal to pity in the intolerant conceptions of religion; it then identifies the positive reasons for expressing pity and looks more specifically into the duty of pity. Thirdly, the paper examines an original discursive use of the appeal of pity in a semi-private, semi-public letter written by Voltaire in relation to the Sirven affair. Eventually, it outlines a linguistic problematization drawing on Michel Meyer’s notion of problematological questioning (2017) in relation to the discursive strategies adopted by Voltaire, strategies that unravel a pathemic paradox: the text becomes all the more touching because it contains relatively few pathemes and it spurs to action as the appeal to pity arouses, in addition to compassion, a feeling of indignation towards the iniquities that overwhelm the innocent victims.
Prompted by the concerns about legitimacy that Josh Reeves expresses in his book Against Methodology in Science and Religion: Recent Debates on Rationality and Theology, this article considers how the field of science and religion, and the disciplines and scholars that comprise it, should think about the pursuit of legitimacy today. It begins by examining four features of any conferral of legitimacy on an object. It then looks more closely at distance and its effects on judgments of legitimacy. It first notes how longer distances can enable a wide range of factors other than the internal features or inherent merits of the object to influence judgments of its legitimacy. It then explores the factors that persons who have significant expertise in or experience with the object may consider when judging its legitimacy. It closes by posing three questions that anyone designing a strategy to increase the perceived legitimacy of an object might ask.
This paper analyses the influence of religion on identity, especially the political identity and political behavior of the non-orthodox people of Montenegro. Goal of this paper is to show that non-orthodox minorities in Montenegro have a mass influence on the politics of this country. For example, without their votes, the independence of Montenegro would not be possible. This is very easy to calculate. 55% voted for the independence, and Muslims represents a little bit more than 19% of the Montenegro's population. All of them say they voted for the independence of Montenegro in 2006 referendum. Therefore, this political decision was highly dependent on the Muslim votes, and had a great influence on the Serbian interests. This fact should be highlighted. Moreover, one can say that this was one of the major defeats of Serbs in the last century. This paper shows that the identity of the Serbian speaking population of Montenegro is dependent on their religious background. Bosnians, Muslims, Montenegrin Muslims or Croats base their national identity on their Islamic or Roman Catholic confession. Moreover, this paper shows that the Albanian national question in Montenegro is a great example of how both Serbian science and politics failed to explain this issue. Serbian politicians and scientist are wrong in saying that Albanians are motivated only by antireligious nationalism in their actions, basing their attitude in complex Albanian society made of Muslims, Catholics and Orthodox Christians. Due to this fact religious aspect was completely ignored. However, a great number of Albanians fighting for Islamic State in Syria and Iraq are quite opposite to this attitude, and making Serbians to ask themselves - how is it possible that an atheist Albanians are fighting in the name of Islam? The situation is similar in Montenegro. In this paper we show that Albanians are also divided on religious lines and that this division has huge consequences. If Serbs has analyzed Albanians interreligious relations based on what we have in Montenegro, it would be easier for them to understand that Albanians failed to overcome their religious differences in the name of national unity, and consequently to understand why so many of them are fighting for ISIL. We also deal with the Croatian question in Montenegro. This paper will show that Montenegrin Croats are a part of the same Serbian body, like Bosnians or Muslims. They are divided from this body only because of their religious belonging to Roman Catholic religion. Under the pressure of the First Croat Catholic Congress in 1900 they accepted to declare as Croats as their national belonging. Prior to this, they were divided between the idea of Slavs and Serbs, all sharing the same Serbian background and language.
Significant changes have been taking place in the field of the sociology of religion in the last few decades, which challenge researchers to rethink this scholarly field. This article suggests that a great deal could be learned about the current dilemmas within this field through research that explores the moral underpinnings of everyday food consumption within contemporary society that is characterized by abundance. More specifically, the article proposes that everyday food consumption and everyday ethics provide unique opportunities to transcend and surpass crucial distinctions within social sciences in a way that can feed the sociological imagination in relation to research on lived (non)religion. Drawing on examples from research on food consumption in the nonreligious context and at the individual, discursive and institutional levels, this study shows how the everyday ethics of food consumption can serve as a point of departure for sociological research, which could help researchers to understand the currents of lived religion and nonreligion in a way that evades the idea of religion as a certain set of practices or beliefs, or as a specific religious affiliation. This research would enable the study of issues such as practices, beliefs, meanings and belonging, as well as distancing, withdrawal, and indifference.
Gunung Kemukus is one of the most sacred regions in Sragen, Central Java. In that area, there is tomb of Pangeran Samudera who is known as an Islamic disseminator of Majapahit descent who received religious guidance from Sunan Kalijaga. However, the spiritual sacredness is damaged by the practice of rituals of self enrichment with committing seven times of sexual adultery rituals on Jumat Pon. Ironically, this practice was responded to fairly by the community that knows the religion values well. This condition is caused by the mindset formed so that the grave pilgrimage ritual followed by the practice of prostitution is a legitimate activity and does not conflict with social and religious norms. This research examined more about how the reconstruction of Islamic education held in the region so that the later generation has begun to change their mindset in response to the rituals on Gunung Kemukus. It is expected that this Islamic education model will support the policy of Sragen Regency government that tries to control the tourist sites of Gunung Kemukus which are often used as prostitution locations covered by grave pilgrimages and self enrichment rituals.
This research aims to describe type classifier of semantic change and to explain the factors causing semantic change. This research was conducted with a qualitative-descriptive approach. The research method is conducted by comparing the meaning of words from the Old Javanese and Sanskrit loan wordto Modern Javanese. The collection data is done by looking for words that the meaning suspected change in Old Javanese dictionary. Words meaning determined precisely by tracing to the Old Javanese text. Furthermore, words meaning are compared to present time meaning through Modern Javanese dictionary. In addition, searching Modern Javanese meaning are also using Javanese news on the internet pages. The analysis of this research is to classify Old Javanese words and Sanskrit loan words meaning that undergo change to Modern Javanese. Its also explained why the change in the word meaning can occur. The result shows that, semantic change of Old Javanese words and Sanskrit loan words to Modern Javanese can be classified into seven types, involving widening, narrowing, shifting, metaphor, metonymy, pejoration, and euphemism. In addition, the result shows that semantic change can occur because of some factors. Psychological factor concerning emotive and taboo, and polysemy. religion spreading, the growth of science and technology, the socio-political development, and the needs of a new name.
'How to begin the life of a saint after the Counter-Reformation? The portrait of the most Catholic Bénigne Frémyot in the first Life of Jeanne de Chantal'Jeanne-Françoise Frémyot de Chantal (1572-1641) is one of the Counter-Reformation most important figures. Her Lives could be an excellent way to understand how political and religious contexts are reflected in the life-writing of a ‘‘candidate’’ to the sanctity (she is canonized in 1767, a century later). We will wonder how her life written by her first biographer (Françoise-Madeleine de Chaugy in 1642) presents relevant elements to think about what seems to be a new demand: the biographer has to prove ‘‘his saint’’ to be a Catholic, in a country where the Wars of Religion have removed its obviousness. Thus, the biographer uses the genealogy to begin his narrative. We will focus on the figure of Jeanne de Chantal’s father, Bénigne Frémyot, the Burgundy Parliament’s President, and especially on the narrative of his unfailing loyalty both to Catholic Church and to Henri IV in the midst of the religious conflict, reinforced by his opposition to the Catholic League.
History (General), Social history and conditions. Social problems. Social reform
This article presents the notion of obligation that Bergson develops in The Two Sources of Morality and Religion. First of all we will show how Bergson’s point of view is different from two usual ways of examine the problem, those of Durkheim’s sociology and Kant’s moral philosophy. Bergson shows that morality it’s not a matter of reason and only relatively a social fact. Its true foundation lies in a life intention. We shall consider that an action made by duty is defined by one kind of passive acquiescence or non-exertion, and not by a tension between different orders of determination that is immediately followed by a coercion upon the will, as could postulate a philosophy of kantian inspiration. Thereafter we will
examine how Bergson defines the morality of actions as a virtual
instinct, the way in which life gets in an association of free and
intelligent beings a kind of regularity that in other lines of evolution
was reached with instinct. So we must return to some Creative
Evolution theses.
Medieval Jews were perceived by their neighbors in two ways. On the one hand, as an integral part of the community, living among Christians, leading business or cooperating intellectually with them. Jewish philosophers were known and respected by Christian thinkers, like the Jewish medics - prized for centuries for their extensive knowledge and skills. On the other hand, the medieval Jew is a clever merchant, cunning moneylender that is gathering his fortune, follower a foreign religion - full of incomprehensible mysterious rituals. Although there was no shortage of sympathy, Jews were rather approached with distrust and distance. A perfect example of this is the ghetto, created in medieval times. Medieval Jew's pictures are multidimensional and very interesting. The article offers an attempt to present this diversity, discussing the Jew as a merchant, usurer, a resident of the ghetto, dissenter and a member of medieval society.