Hasil untuk "Law of nations"

M. Nordquist, S. Nandan, James Kraska

This Supplement to the seven-volume series United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982, A Commentary, prepared at the University of Virginia’s Center for Oceans Law and Policy, contains additional primary documents and materials directly related to the Convention.

F. Simini, Marta C. González, A. Maritan et al.

Introduced in its contemporary form in 1946 (ref. 1), but with roots that go back to the eighteenth century, the gravity law is the prevailing framework with which to predict population movement, cargo shipping volume and inter-city phone calls, as well as bilateral trade flows between nations. Despite its widespread use, it relies on adjustable parameters that vary from region to region and suffers from known analytic inconsistencies. Here we introduce a stochastic process capturing local mobility decisions that helps us analytically derive commuting and mobility fluxes that require as input only information on the population distribution. The resulting radiation model predicts mobility patterns in good agreement with mobility and transport patterns observed in a wide range of phenomena, from long-term migration patterns to communication volume between different regions. Given its parameter-free nature, the model can be applied in areas where we lack previous mobility measurements, significantly improving the predictive accuracy of most of the phenomena affected by mobility and transport processes.

J. Comaroff, J. Comaroff

L. Leblanc

Dennis J. Selkoe

Liisa H. Malkki

A. Licht, Chanan Goldschmidt, S. Schwartz

C. Işık, Serdar Ongan, Hasibul Islam et al.

Asia–Pacific countries are experiencing rapid economic growth. Is this growth ESG (Environmental, Social, and Governance) factors‐based and aligned growth? Therefore, this study investigates the connections between ESG indicators and economic growth in East Asia Pacific and South Asia. To achieve this aim, we employed the FMOLS, DOLS, and AMG models. While the AMG model highlights significant long‐term positive effects of the environmental (EFs) and governance factors (GOVNF) on economic growth, the FMOLS and DOLS models emphasize the substantial influence of social factors (SOC) on economic growth. These findings underscore the multifaceted nature of ESG factors and offer valuable insights for policymakers aiming to align strategies with the sustainable development goals (SDGs). Notably, the GOVNF, with components like control of corruption, regulatory quality, rule of law, and government effectiveness, does not influence the GDP of developed nations, such as Japan, New Zealand, and Australia. However, its significance is evident in countries like Afghanistan and Sri Lanka. This result might stem from the possibility that developed countries have historically addressed and resolved issues like corruption and the rule of law, while these elements remain crucial determinants for the economic growth of developing nations like Afghanistan and Sri Lanka. Empirical findings provide the region's policymakers with essential insights and a guide for implementing their economic growth policies ESG factor‐based and aligned to the United Nations' SDGs. These targets will make the economic growth of the region's countries sustainable.

M. Davis

Bilal Irfan, Kaden Venugopal, Michelle Anne Cohen et al.

This paper examines how people-centered accountability initiatives are operating to enforce the right to health amid Israel’s genocide in Gaza. Drawing on a critical case study of Doctors Against Genocide, Healthcare Workers Watch, and the Freedom Flotilla Coalition, we situate these actors’ work within international human rights law, social accountability scholarship, and decolonial and abolitionist critiques. We show how these actors are able to combine clinical documentation, survivor testimony, and direct action to monitor human rights violations, generate medically literate records of the harm inflicted, and press for remedies that state-centered mechanisms have failed to deliver despite findings of war crimes and genocide by United Nations bodies and human rights groups. Across these cases, we identify some common practices and tensions surrounding coalition-building, risks to documentation, navigating a media environment of mis/disinformation, and engaging strategically with institutions that often reproduce health harms or are directly complicit. We argue that these movements treat people-centered accountability as part of their professional duty and act on a mandate to prevent mass atrocity crimes rather than being silent. We conclude by outlining some practical implications for clinicians, professional associations, and health systems seeking to align their global health practice with a people-centered approach to accountability.

E. V. Kiseleva, A. V. Shpakovskii

INTRODUCTION. With the steady increase in the number of migrants and forcibly displaced persons, migration has the potential to both contribute to the development of States and create problems for all parties involved. The United States of America is a country created by migrants. For a long time, it occupies the first place in the list of countries in the world in terms of the number of people on its territory who do not have citizenship of the host State. This indicates a special interest in the experience of migration policy and legislative regulation of migration in the United States. The article presents an analysis of the development of migration policy and migration legislation in the United States in the 17-21st centuries. Special attention is paid to the use of such measures of restriction and control of migration, as the detention of migrants and refugees. The norms in force are correlated with obligations of the USA under international law.MATERIALS AND METHODS. The work is based on the study of the US legislation in the field of migration and forced displacement, on analysis of international legal acts concerning migration, forced displacement and human rights protection, on the use of scientific literature in Russian and English, as well as statistical and other sources on the topic of the study. General scientific and specific scientific methods of cognition are applied: system approach, analysis, synthesis, formal-legal, historical-legal, and comparativelegal methods.RESEARCH RESULTS. The study reveals that the migration policy and legislation of the United States of America have gone through several stages in their development, during which the attitude towards immigrants changed from encouraging immigration to introducing severe restrictions. The international legal framework concerning migration and forced displacement that has been formed to date does not fully bind the United States due to the state's participation in a small number of applicable international treaties, and the obligations that apply to the United States are not fully implemented.DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. The tools for implementing the US migration policy were characterized by significant diversity and included both methods acceptable from the point of view of contemporary international law and those that did not fully correspond to it, including detention and subsequent deportation of migrants, refugees and asylum seekers, as evidenced by monitoring the United States’ implementation of their international legal obligations by the Charter-based (through the Universal Periodic Review) and treaty-based (primarily through the consideration of periodic reports) human rights protection bodies. At the same time, the extremely tough measures announced and already taken by D. Trump in 2025 do not radically change the vector of development of the migration policy, law and practice of the United States, as the USA have long since moved away from liberality and softness in establishing the conditions for entry into its territory and stay on it of migrants and refugees.

Warren Scantlebury, Milena Radenkovic

This report aims to conduct an in-depth comparison of DTN (Delay/Disconnection Tolerant Network) performance and characteristics in the developing country of Barbados versus two major UK cities Nottingham and London. We aim to detect any common patterns or deviations between the two region areas and use the results of our network simulations to draw well-founded conclusions on the reasons for these similarities and differences. In the end we hope to be able to assimilate specific portions of the island to these major cities in regard to DTN characteristics. We also want to investigate the viability of DTN use in the transport sector which has struggled from a range of issues related to efficiency and finance, by recording and analysing the same metrics for a DTN that consists of only buses. This work is intended to serve as a bridge for expanding the breadth of research done on developed countries allowing other researchers to be able to make well informed assumptions about how that research may apply to developing nations. It will consist of results that show graphical trends and analysis of why these trends might exist and how they apply to real world scenarios.

Josh Culver, Aubrey Ayres, Evan Halloran et al.

We consider a system consisting of one conservation law and one balance law with a time-dependent source term, and provide a comprehensive analysis of Riemann solutions, including the non-classical overcompressive delta shocks. The minimal yet representative structure of the system captures essential features of transport under density constraints and, despite its simplicity, serves as a versatile prototype for crowd-limited transport processes across diverse contexts, including biological aggregation, ecological dispersal, granular compaction, and traffic congestion. In addition to non-self-similar solutions mentioned above, the associated Riemann problem admits solution structures that traverse vacuum states ($ρ= 0$) and the critical density threshold ($ρ= \barρ$), where mobility vanishes and characteristic speed degenerates. Moreover, the explicit time dependence in the source term leads to the breakdown of self-similarity, resulting in distinct Riemann solutions over successive time intervals and highlighting the dynamic nature of the solution landscape. The theoretical findings are numerically confirmed using the Local Lax-Friedrichs scheme.

Hans J. Haubold, Arak M. Mathai

This paper was prepared for Open-Access-only publication as a guide reporting on Education (all aspects of space science and technology), Teaching (remote sensing and GIS, satellite meteorology and global climate, satellite communication, space and atmospheric sciences, global navigation satellite systems), and Research (solar neutrino problem, formation of structure in the Universe) in astronomy (solar physics, cosmology), physics (nuclear physics, neutrino physics), and mathematics (fractional calculus, special functions of mathematical physics) exercised over 50 years (1974-2024). In this period, more than twenty workshops were held and seven regional centres for space science and technology education were established in all regions of the world: Asia and the Pacific, Latin America and the Caribbean, Africa, Western Asia, and Europe. This effort was undertaken in cooperation with ESA, NASA, JAXA, and 193 member states of the United Nations under the auspices of the UN, also supported by the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) and the International Astronomical Union (IAU). The paper provides access to most of the documents in the six official languages of the United Nations (Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish), proceedings, and published papers and books focusing on education, teaching, and research (listed in Google Scholar and Research Gate).

Roberto Scendoni, Israel Soriano Vázquez, Isabella Lima Arrais Ribeiro et al.

This study aimed to evaluate the reliability of an age estimation method based on the pulp⁄tooth area ratio by assessing intra- and inter-examiner agreement across five observers at different intervals. Using the same X-ray device and technical parameters, 96 digital periapical X-ray images of upper and lower canines were obtained from 28 deceased people in Central America, whose age at death ranged from 19 to 49 years. Excellent and good agreement of results were achieved, and there were no statistically significant differences. The R2 value for upper teeth (54.0%) was higher than the R2 value for lower teeth (45.7%). The highest intraclass correlation coefficient value was 0.995 (0.993–0.997) and the lowest 0.798 (0.545–0.895). Inter-examiner agreement was high with values of 0.975 (0.965–0.983) and 0.927 (0.879–0.955). This method is adequate for assessing age in missing and unidentified people, including victims of mass disasters.

Angela Cimini, Paolo De Fioravante, Ines Marinosci et al.

Among the most significant impacts related to the spread of settlements and the densification of urban areas, the reduction in the availability of public green spaces plays a central role in the definition of livable cities, in terms of the environment and social cohesion, interaction, and equality. In the framework of target 11.7 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) 11, the United Nations has established the objective of ensuring universal, safe, and inclusive access to public spaces by 2030, for women, children, the elderly, and people with disabilities. This study proposes the evaluation of this objective for the urban area of the 14 Italian metropolitan cities, as defined by EUROSTAT and adopted by the United Nations and the Nature Restoration Law (NRL). A methodology based on open-source data and network analysis tools is tested for the provision of an unprecedented mapping of the availability and accessibility to green urban public spaces, which shows that less than 30% of metropolitan city residents have access to a green space within 300 m on foot, according to OpenStreetMap data (less than one in five for the Urban Atlas data). Furthermore, a critical analysis on the geometric and semantic definition of green urban public spaces adopted by the main European and international tools is carried out, which underlines the strategic role of crowdsourcing but also the need for mapping rules that make the data more consistent with the monitoring objectives set at the institutional level.

Nino Rukhadze

Local self-governments are increasingly striving to assert themselves in the international system, showing their active participation in international relations. Every indication point to the growing tendency of their active presence in the global arena. Against this backdrop, the questions arise as to what status do local self-governments hold in international law, and whether their increasing role necessitates reconsidering the legal/constitutional framework concerning their status. This article highlights the recent trends of growing participation of local self-government bodies in global processes, and examines the need for revisiting a legal/constitutional dimension of municipalities’ involvement in international relations.

Pranav Narayanan Venkit, Sanjana Gautam, Ruchi Panchanadikar et al.

We investigate the potential for nationality biases in natural language processing (NLP) models using human evaluation methods. Biased NLP models can perpetuate stereotypes and lead to algorithmic discrimination, posing a significant challenge to the fairness and justice of AI systems. Our study employs a two-step mixed-methods approach that includes both quantitative and qualitative analysis to identify and understand the impact of nationality bias in a text generation model. Through our human-centered quantitative analysis, we measure the extent of nationality bias in articles generated by AI sources. We then conduct open-ended interviews with participants, performing qualitative coding and thematic analysis to understand the implications of these biases on human readers. Our findings reveal that biased NLP models tend to replicate and amplify existing societal biases, which can translate to harm if used in a sociotechnical setting. The qualitative analysis from our interviews offers insights into the experience readers have when encountering such articles, highlighting the potential to shift a reader's perception of a country. These findings emphasize the critical role of public perception in shaping AI's impact on society and the need to correct biases in AI systems.

Herman Suryokumoro, Hikmatul Ula, Intania Zahra R

Introduction: This issue was raised based on the fact that the COVID-19 investigation team in carrying out their duties did not always go well, one of which was the refusal of several people from the investigation team to enter Chinese territory. Purposes of the Research: This study aims to analyze the legal protection of the COVID-19 investigator team from WHO in the perspective of international law. Methods of the Research: The research method used is normative juridical research with a qualitative analytical descriptive nature, by examining legal materials, both primary legal materials and secondary legal materials through literature studies and other related literature. Results of the Research: The position of the WHO investigation team in the perspective of international law is as an expert on mission as well as an expert on mission in the United Nations. Expert on mission is an external organ to assist the functions and goals of organizations including WHO. In carrying out their duties, the expert on mission is equipped with all legal protections as stipulated in the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the Specialized Agencies. Protection is given when the expert mission is carrying out its duties but in the convention there is no guarantee that the expert on mission is allowed -unconditionally- to enter the territory of the country. This is very reasonable considering that the state has full sovereignty over its jurisdiction. The ban on the entry of the COVID-19 investigation team for reasons of sovereignty should have been avoided considering that the COVID-19 pandemic is a common problem that requires cooperation from all over the world. The existence of obstacles to the work of the Investigation Team by China, which incidentally is the country that initiated the formation of the Covid-19 Investigation Team, is a bad precedent and a violation of international obligations as stipulated in the Responsibility of States for International Wrongful Acts.