Hasil untuk "Language acquisition"

D. Crystal

1 Popular ideas about language 2 Language and identity 3 The structure of language 4 The medium of language: speaking and listening 5 The medium of language: reading and writing 6 The medium of language: signing and seeing 7 Child language acquisition 8 Language, brain and handicap 9 The languages of the world 10 Language in the world 11 Language and communication Appendices 1 Glossary 2 Special symbols and abbreviations used in The Encyclopedia of Language 3 Table of the world's languages 4 Further reading 5 References 6 Index of langauges, families, dialects and scripts 7 Index of authors and personalities 8 Index of topics

Zhenghao Liu, Pengcheng Huang, Zhipeng Xu et al.

Large Language Models (LLMs) have exhibited impressive capabilities in reasoning and language understanding. However, their reliance on memorized knowledge and tendency to generate hallucinated content limit their reliability in real-world applications. Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) mitigates these issues by integrating a retrieval module that supplements LLMs with relevant external knowledge. This paradigm bridges parametric memory and explicit retrieval, offering a principled way to ground generation in factual evidence. Despite substantial progress, most prior work has focused on optimizing isolated components, either retrieval or generation, while overlooking the agentic perspective, in which LLMs act as autonomous agents capable of actively acquiring and strategically utilizing knowledge. In this perspectives paper, we argue for reinterpreting RAG as a collaborative knowledge process among agents with distinct yet complementary roles. We categorize knowledge-intensive agents into two primary roles: knowledge acquisition (e.g., routing, query reformulation) and knowledge utilization (e.g., knowledge refinement, response generation). From this viewpoint, RAG becomes a dynamic system in which knowledge is continuously transmitted, transformed, and aligned across agent roles. To fully realize this paradigm, we advocate a joint optimization framework for knowledge-intensive agents within RAG systems. This framework explicitly models the dynamics of knowledge flow in multi-agent settings, aligning knowledge supply with knowledge demand through LLM-driven data synthesis, feedback, and evaluation. By fostering adaptive and targeted knowledge exchange, the framework mitigates conflicts between parametric and retrieved knowledge, thereby enhancing both coherence and factuality. We argue that this multi-agent joint optimization paradigm improves RAG systems in scalability, reliability, and adaptability, unlocking the potential for next-generation knowledge-intensive LLMs that reason, retrieve, and collaborate across deep retrieval processes and diverse vertical domains.

Taylor N. Whitt, Alexis Heath, D’Atra J. Hill et al.

Objective: Bacterial vaginosis is a dysbiosis of the vaginal microbiome, typically characterized by a loss of <i>Lactobacillus</i>. <i>Lactobacillus</i> plays a crucial role in vaginal immunity and protection against sexually transmitted infections. Herpes simplex virus 2, the primary cause of genital herpes, impacts 13% of people worldwide. We undertook this systematic review and meta-analysis to examine the risk of herpes simplex virus 2 acquisition in women with bacterial vaginosis. Secondarily, we examined the impact of bacterial vaginosis on herpes simplex virus 2 shedding, reactivation, and symptoms. Data sources: We searched PubMed, EMBASE, Cochrane, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and ClinicalTrials.gov for articles published before 1 July 2023 for microbiome and herpes simplex virus type 2. Studies were limited to human subjects and the English language. An updated search was performed in January 2026. This study was registered on PROSPERO (CRD42023439139). Methods of study selection: Studies on non-pregnant, reproductive-aged cisgender women that diagnosed bacterial vaginosis by Amsel Criteria, Nugent Scoring or used molecular techniques, and those that detected herpes simplex virus 2 by serological assay or PCR testing were included. Our search identified 863 results with four publications eligible for inclusion. For our secondary outcomes, 40 results were identified regarding herpes simplex virus 2 shedding, with two publications eligible for inclusion, which did not meet our threshold for meta-analysis. There were 21 results identified for herpes simplex virus 2 reaction and 115 results for herpes simplex virus 2 symptoms, with no articles being eligible for inclusion. Tabulation, integration, and results: Quality assessment was performed following data extraction using the quality assessment scales from the Joanna Briggs Institute. Results were extracted, and the pooled hazard ratio was calculated with 95% confidence interval. A total of 1906 women were included in this analysis, and 255 acquired herpes simplex virus 2. The pooled unadjusted hazard ratios produced an effect size of 1.91, (95% confidence interval 1.4649–2.4980), and a <i>p</i>-value of <0.0001, while the pooled adjusted hazard ratios produces an effect size of 1.85, (95% confidence interval of 1.3556–2.5162), and a <i>p</i>-value of 0.0001 indicating that bacterial vaginosis is associated with a increased risk of herpes simplex virus 2 acquisition. Conclusions: This systematic review with meta-analysis indicates that bacterial vaginosis is associated with a significantly increased risk (91% unadjusted, 85% adjusted) of herpes simplex virus 2 acquisition, indicating that bacterial vaginosis treatment may reduce herpes simplex virus 2 acquisition. A notable limitation of these findings is the relatively small number of studies eligible for inclusion in this systematic review and meta-analysis.

Natalia Anna Koc, Maurycy Rakowski, Anna Dębska et al.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a valuable tool for presurgical brain mapping, traditionally implemented with task-based paradigms (tb-fMRI) that measure blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) signal changes during controlled motor or cognitive tasks. Tb-fMRI is a well-established tool for non-invasive localization of cortical eloquent areas, yet its dependence on patient cooperation and intact cognition limits use in individuals with aphasia, cognitive impairment, or in pediatric and other vulnerable populations. Resting-state fMRI (rs-fMRI) provides a task-free alternative by leveraging spontaneous low-frequency BOLD fluctuations to delineate intrinsic functional networks, including motor and language systems that show good spatial concordance with tb-fMRI and with direct cortical stimulation. This narrative review outlines the methodological foundations of tb-fMRI and rs-fMRI, comparing acquisition protocols, preprocessing and denoising pipelines, analytic approaches, and validation strategies relevant to presurgical planning. Particular emphasis is given to the technical and physiological foundations of BOLD imaging, statistical modeling, and the influence of motion, noise, and standardization on data reliability. Emerging evidence indicates that rs-fMRI can reliably expand mapping to patients with limited task compliance and may serve as a robust complementary modality in complex clinical contexts, though its methodological heterogeneity and absence of unified practice guidelines currently constrain widespread adoption. Future advances in harmonized preprocessing, multicenter validation, and integration with connectomics and machine learning frameworks are likely to be critical for translating rs-fMRI into routine, reliable presurgical workflows.

Kirsten H. Beier-Marchesi

Napat Jitpaisarnwattana, Nick Saville

This study investigates the role of Write & Improve, an Automated Writing Evaluation (AWE) tool, in fostering autonomous learning among EFL students. Additionally, it examines students’ perceptions of AWE as a tool for enhancing writing proficiency. Adopting a mixed-methods approach, data were collected from 53 students enrolled in an English Preparation for Standardized Tests course at a public university in Thailand, using questionnaires and semi-structured interviews to assess autonomous learning behaviors and student perceptions. The findings suggest that engagement with AWE supports various aspects of learner autonomy, including independent learning and language awareness. Students generally viewed the Write & Improve intervention positively, particularly in terms of its effectiveness, usefulness, and motivational impact. However, the feedback was perceived as mechanistic and largely restricted to grammatical range and accuracy. The study concludes that AWE has the potential to promote autonomous learning by facilitating learning through feedback and revision. Moreover, students’ positive perceptions indicate a high level of acceptance of AWE technology. These findings have pedagogical implications for integrating AWE into autonomous learning frameworks and informing the design and implementation of AWE systems in educational contexts.

Alison Mcewin, Faye Bruun, David Daniel Jimenez et al.

Language acquisition, reading comprehension, and teacher PD will be presented in this article to discuss how the three components can be helpful in supporting emergent bilinguals (EBs). Using children’s literature in mathematics classes could improve the performance of (EB) students. The most current research suggests students who engage more with language through meaningful experiences like stories have greater retention for the material they are learning while they also see the English language in action. The more interaction and exposure to the language may increase EBs performance in the class subjects of English Language Arts and Reading. One of the best ways to engage emergent bilingual students with science and mathematics while supporting language acquisition is the use of children’s literature to teach science, technology, engineering, art, and math (STEAM) concepts. The elements of a story help students learn the structure of English usage in everyday speech while giving them solid STEAM concepts they can more easily understand through the story. This strategy also allows the teacher to scaffold for EB students using the story as a building block. By selecting and pairing effective EB strategies with children’s STEAM literature, there may be an increase in student performance overall.

Wonjin Hur, Bongjun Ji

The global expansion of Korean language education has created an urgent need for scalable, objective, and consistent methods for assessing the writing skills of non-native (L2) learners. Traditional manual grading is resource-intensive and prone to subjectivity, while existing Automated Essay Scoring (AES) systems often struggle with the linguistic nuances of Korean and the specific error patterns of L2 writers. This paper introduces a novel hybrid AES system designed specifically for Korean L2 writing. The system integrates two complementary feature sets: (1) a comprehensive suite of conventional linguistic features capturing lexical diversity, syntactic complexity, and readability to assess writing form and (2) a novel semantic relevance feature that evaluates writing content. This semantic feature is derived by calculating the cosine similarity between a student’s essay and an ideal, high-proficiency reference answer generated by a Large Language Model (LLM). Various machine learning models are trained on the Korean Language Learner Corpus from the National Institute of the Korean Language to predict a holistic score on the 6-level Test of Proficiency in Korean (TOPIK) scale. The proposed hybrid system demonstrates superior performance compared to baseline models that rely on either linguistic or semantic features alone. The integration of the LLM-based semantic feature provides a significant improvement in scoring accuracy, more closely aligning the automated assessment with human expert judgments. By systematically combining measures of linguistic form and semantic content, this hybrid approach provides a more holistic and accurate assessment of Korean L2 writing proficiency. The system represents a practical and effective tool for supporting large-scale language education and assessment, aligning with the need for advanced AI-driven educational technology systems.

Сара Салем Аль-Хабахбех, Марван Джаррах, Абдель Рахман Мітіб Алтахіне

Purpose. This study investigates the acquisition and variation of negation patterns among Jordanian Arabic-speaking children aged 3 to 9 years, addressing a critical gap in the psycholinguistic literature on Arabic language development. Methods. The data analyzed in this study were extracted from the Jordanian Arabic Child Language Corpus Project (Jarrah et al., 2025), which at the time contained approximately 150,000 words of transcribed spontaneous speech. Participants engaged in open-ended, semi-structured sessions designed to elicit naturalistic use of negation in daily conversational contexts. Results. Findings reveal that preverbal negation is acquired earliest and predominates across all age groups and dialects, with a pivotal developmental window identified between ages 6 and 8. The study’s results align with Usage-Based theories of language acquisition and the one-to-one mapping principle, demonstrating how children’s linguistic competence progressively converges toward adult norms through exposure and interaction. Furthermore, dialectal variation influences negation use, underscoring the interaction between cognitive maturation and sociolinguistic environment. Conclusion. This research provides a foundational psycholinguistic framework for understanding negation acquisition in a diglossic and socially stratified context, with implications for future cross-dialectal and longitudinal studies. The findings contribute significantly to the broader understanding of morphosyntactic development and language variation in Arabic-speaking populations.

Tempo Po-Yi Tang, Yu-Yin Hsu, Dustin Kai-Yan Lau et al.

Aspect markers (AMs), temporal adverbs (TAs) and temporal nouns (TNs) are used by young Mandarin-speaking children to express time. However, the factors that affect the relative acquisition trajectories of these categories remains unclear. Accordingly, this study adopts Weist’s time-concept model to examine the patterns of acquisition between and within the above three categories of temporal markers in the Mandarin system of time. Specifically, temporal markers were extracted from language samples obtained from 82 Mandarin-speaking children aged 2 to 5 years, who were divided into three groups by age. The results indicated that the token counts and the type counts of temporal markers were significantly higher among the older children, who were also more capable of using more categories of temporal markers, and were more likely to use multiple markers in single utterances. Of the three categories of temporal marker, AMs emerged earliest, and the participants’ repertoires of AMs stopped expanding sooner than their TA and TN repertoires did. As measured by token use, AMs were mastered earliest. Within each of the three categories, the acquisition of temporal-marker subgroups also varied according to two semantic features: temporal remoteness and specificity. The findings were consistent with Weist’s principles, and suggest that language-general time concepts (content) and language-specific syntactic properties (form) interact to shape the acquisition of temporal markers by Mandarin-speaking children, with the additional role being played by the semantic features of temporal remoteness and specificity within each category. Theoretical and clinical implications are also discussed.

Xizhong Song

Abstract This study explores the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) teaching assistants in sports tennis instruction to enhance the intelligent teaching system. Firstly, the applicability of AI technology to tennis teaching in schools is investigated. The intelligent teaching system comprises an expert system, an image acquisition system, and an intelligent language system. Secondly, employing compressed sensing theory, a framework for learning the large-scale fuzzy cognitive map (FCM) from time series data, termed compressed sensing-FCM (CS-FCM), is devised to address challenges associated with automatic learning methods in the designed AI teaching assistant system. Finally, a high-order FCM-based time series prediction framework is proposed. According to experimental simulations, CS-FCM demonstrates robust convergence and stability, achieving a stable point with a reconstruction error below 0.001 after 15 iterations for FCM with various data lengths and a density of 20%. The proposed intelligent system based on high-order complex networks significantly improves upon the limitations of the current FCM model. The advantages of its teaching assistant system can be effectively leveraged for tennis instruction in sports.

Colin Mitchell

Self-access language centres (SALCs) utilise self-directed learning, which allows learners to set their own learning goals and make their own learning choices. While this approach can benefit language learners, it can also be intimidating for those not used to autonomous learning. To help learners transition from teacher-directed to self-directed learning, various interventions such as coaching, counselling, mentoring, and advising can be used. These interventions can be effective in helping learners become more self-directed, but it is important to review and consider the learner’s expectations when implementing them. This paper analyses data from a one-on-one coaching intervention between an English-speaking coach and five Japanese participants using English as a second language to explore the factors contributing to the intervention session’s perceived success.

Fatima Ambreen, Burhan Ozdemir, Dina Abdel Salam El-Dakhs

Abstract Textism, which refers to the special language used in text messaging, is widely used in several forms of communication, such as texting, online chatting and emails. This increased use of textism has alarmed the media and the public because this special language can impact the academic writing of the younger generation. This paper aimed at exploring the attitudes of undergraduate Saudi learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) toward using textism in their academic writing. (115) students of different levels of language proficiency completed a survey about the use of textism across several modalities and recipients. Additionally, (240) student essays were analyzed to identify the potential use of textism in student writing. The results showed that students are generally conscious of the appropriate contexts for the use of textism. However, when it comes to the actual use of textism in writing, low-proficient students tend to produce more textism than those who are at medium and high levels of writing competence.

Elena Zelenicka, Renata Pavlova, Olga Csalova et al.

Introduction. The aim of this research is to define what role continuous assessment plays in foreign language teaching. We analysed some of the most frequent communication and language mistakes by our research sample students in their written communications at the B2 level. We believe these correlations have yet to be closely studied in the context of the foreign language teaching process since there is a significant increase in the number of international students entering Slovak universities for programs implemented in the Slovak language. We also researched the current interest of our non-Slovak university students in verifying Slovak language competencies through ECL testing compared to the period before 2019 in correlation with their writing skills preparation. Materials and Methods. Our research sample included 200 randomly selected written communications by firstyear international students of our University in the period of 2019‒2022 in various fields of study at the age scale from 17 to 42. The students were from Russia, Serbia, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Belarus, Ukraine, and the Czech Republic. We applied content analysis of the written communications concerning the most frequent mistakes from the morphological, syntactic and writing-accuracy points of view. We also used statistical methods to research the current interest in verifying foreign language competencies through ECL testing on the side of our international students. Results. The results delivered that the most frequent errors are typographical, mainly related to spelling, punctuation and paraphrasing; therefore, we can claim that in the Slovak language learning, it is significantly beneficial to focus on formal correctness, i.e. consistent acquisition of the Slovak language grammar system. We also identified the sociolinguistic adequacy of written communication problematic, i.e. style, clear statements formulations, and adherence to the text composition. The results also demonstrated the increase in our international university studentsʼ interest in verifying foreign language competencies through ECL testing compared to the period before 2019. Discussion and Conclusion. From the results it follows that teaching writing skills intensively with a focus on particularly identified problematic issues in written communications increases the learnersʼ language acquisition level. This study presents results that may be useful in the targeted language preparation of the international students recruited to Slovak universities as their home universities and their further preparation for undertaking Slovak language proficiency official verification. In addition, the results of our study may contribute to the further development of general professional education in foreign languages.

María Dolores Asensio Ferreiro

Tradicionalmente se ha prestado escasa atención a la adquisición de las unidades fraseológicas (UF) en general, y de las paremias en particular, en las propuestas didácticas y en los manuales de lengua española y de otras lenguas extranjeras (LE). Por ello, el tratamiento que reciben la fraseología y la paremiología en la enseñanza y aprendizaje de (E/A de LE) continúa representando un desafío para investigadores y docentes, principalmente en lo que se refiere a estrategias metodológicas enfocadas a la didáctica de estas disciplinas en el aula de LE. El estudio de las UF en la E/A de LE se ha convertido en un campo propio denominado fraseodidáctica, campo emergente dentro del   ámbito de la fraseología, dada   la importancia de estas unidades en el proceso de adquisición y desarrollo de la competencia comunicativa del usuario de una lengua. No obstante, no sucede lo mismo con las investigaciones centradas en la adquisición de competencia paremiológica (CP) en la E/A de LE, es decir, en lo que denominamos “paremiodidáctica”. Una de las grandes problemáticas en este sentido se encuentra en que la ausencia de conciencia paremiológica en lengua materna (LM) complica el aprendizaje de estas unidades, tanto en LM como en LE, e incluso provoca una fractura en la competencia comunicativa con los hablantes nativos de esa comunidad, lo que impide una adecuada y fluida comprensión en LE y dificulta seriamente la posibilidad de alcanzar un elevado dominio en LE, según indican los niveles del MCER. A esto se añade la competencia multilingüe (CM) del alumnado actual ya que la globalización actual obliga al dominio de varias LE. En este trabajo, analizamos estas cuestiones y presentamos un estudio en torno al multilingüismo inherente al alumnado universitario actual, con el fin de averiguar la relación entre la CP y la CM de estudiantes con LM español. Los resultados suponen una fuente de información privilegiada para profundizar en la investigación en paremiodidáctica de LE.

Jennifer Zuk, Xi Yu, Joseph Sanfilippo et al.

Language acquisition is of central importance to child development. Although this developmental trajectory is shaped by experience postnatally, the neural basis for language emerges prenatally. Thus, a fundamental question remains: do structural foundations for language in infancy predict long-term language abilities? Longitudinal investigation of 40 children from infancy to kindergarten reveals that white matter in infancy is prospectively associated with subsequent language abilities, specifically between: (i) left arcuate fasciculus and phonological awareness and vocabulary knowledge, (ii) left corticospinal tract and phonological awareness, and bilateral corticospinal tract with phonological memory; controlling for age, cognitive, and environmental factors. Findings link white matter in infancy with school-age language abilities, suggesting that white matter organization in infancy sets a foundation for long-term language development.

Paola Cantoni, Rita Fresu

L’acquisizione dell’italiano come lingua variabile, promossa ormai da tempo dagli studi teorici e ribadita anche nelle ultime Indicazioni e Linee Guida, stenta ad affermarsi nella concreta pratica scolastica. Appare perciò necessario mettere a punto nuovi modelli per promuovere una competenza linguistica fondata sul concetto di variazione e fornire ai docenti metodi, sfondi teorici, contenuti ed anche proposte didattiche concrete. Il presente intervento intende illustrare le potenzialità in sede didattica di testi non letterari e proporre, sulla base di esperimenti testati anche attraverso esperienze personali, alcuni percorsi operativi. Le produzioni dal basso, oggetto negli ultimi tempi di ripensamenti teorici sul piano storico- e socio-linguistico, presentano diversi vantaggi sia di ordine metodologico sia per i contenuti che veicolano e per i contesti che evocano e che le aprono alla possibilità di percorsi disciplinari trasversali. Sono qui presentati e discussi alcuni casi concretamente sperimentati che consentono di mettere a fuoco gli elementi di forza e le ricadute reali di tali testi nella didattica dell’italiano.   Other models for teaching variation: theoretical reflections and didactic proposals The acquisition of Italian as a variable language, promoted by theoretical studies for some time now and reiterated in the latest "Indicazioni" and "Linee Guida", struggles to establish itself in actual school practice. Therefore, it seems necessary to develop new models in order to encourage linguistic competence based on the concept of variation and provide teachers with methods, theoretical backgrounds, content and concrete educational proposals. This paper aims to illustrate the potential of non-literary texts in schools and proposes some work paths, also based on our personal experiences. Bottom-up production, recently the subject of theoretical thoughts at the historical and socio-linguistic level, have several advantages linked to methodology, content and contexts that open up the possibility for cross-disciplinary courses. We present and discuss some cases that allow us to focus on the elements of strength and the real impact of such texts in teaching Italian.

Perumal Santhanam Divya, Jasmine Lydia Selvaraj, Priscilla P et al.

The Modified Checklist for autism in toddlers - revised (MCHAT-R) (Robin et al 2001) is a simple questionnaire for parents which improves discrimination between autism and other developmental disorders. This screening tool is currently available in more than 20 languages of the World. The aim of the current study is adaptation and validation of the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (M-CHAT-R) in the Tamil language. A total of 450 children from both sexes between 16 to 30 months of age were taken, and those who have any comorbid serve chronic diseases were excluded. For the reliability of T-MCHAT-R, statistical analysis was done by using SPSS version 20.0. The Cronbach's Alpha test found out that the T- MCHAT- R has an alpha score of 0.894 on a standardized item, which is categorized as excellent reliability. Pearson's two-tailed correlation was performed to compare T-MCHAT-R scores with ISAA scores which reveal a positive correlation (r=0.01). The ‘p’ value for T-MCHAT-R and ISAA for both the normal and abnormal groups was >0.001 indicating that the results are highly significant. Our results yielded reliability and validity estimates similar to the values of the original M-CHAT validity study (Robins et al. 2001). We have shown that the Tamil version of M-CHAT-R has divergent Validity. The Tamil version of M-CHAT-R has shown satisfactory reliability. Hence it is an effective tool for screening for ASD in medium and high-risk children and should be regarded as the first official Tamil version of the M-CHAT-R to be applied in Tamil Nadu.

William Washabaugh, Fred R. Eckman, J. Schumann

Josefine Horbach, Kathrin Weber, Felicitas Opolony et al.

To master the task of reading, children need to acquire a coding system representing speech as a sequence of visual symbols. Recent research suggested that performance in the processing of artificial script that relies on the association of sound and symbol may be associated with reading skill. The current longitudinal study examined the predictive value of a preschool sound-symbol paradigm (SSP) of reading performance 3 years later. The Morse-like SSP, IQ, and letter knowledge (LK) was assessed in young preschool children. Reading outcome measures were examined 3 years later. Word reading, pseudoword reading, and reading comprehension were predicted with age, IQ, LK, and SSP. The results showed that SSP substantially predicted reading fluency and reading comprehension 3 years later. For reading fluency measures, the influence of further predictor variables was not significant and SSP served as a sole predictor. Reading comprehension was best explained by SSP and age. The amount of variance SSP explained in reading 3 years later was remarkably high, with an explained variance between 63 and 82%, depending on the outcome reading variable. SSP turned out to be a substantial predictor of later reading performance in a language with statistically reliable spelling-to-sound relations. As LK is highly dependent on educational support, we assume that children in our socioeconomically diverse sample did not have much opportunity to acquire LK in their home environment. In contrast, the SSP challenges students to acquire new spelling-to-sound relations, simulating a core aspect of natural reading acquisition. Future work will test this paradigm in less transparent languages like English and explore its potential as a future standard assessment in the study of early reading development.