Hasil untuk "Environmental effects of industries and plants"

B. Léllis, Cíntia Zani Fávaro-Polonio, J. Pamphile et al.

Abstract The water is an essential resource for life on the planet and for human development. The textile industry is one of the anthropogenic activities that most consume water and pollute water bodies. Therefore, the present work aims to undertake a review on the main effects of the release of industrial dyes and the essential bioremediation mechanisms. The textile dyes significantly compromise the aesthetic quality of water bodies, increase biochemical and chemical oxygen demand (BOD and COD), impair photosynthesis, inhibit plant growth, enter the food chain, provide recalcitrance and bioaccumulation, and may promote toxicity, mutagenicity and carcinogenicity. In spite of this, the bioremediation of textile dyes, that is, the transformation or mineralization of these contaminants by the enzymatic action of plant, bacteria, extremophiles and fungi biomasses is fully possible. Another option is the adsorption. Despite some disadvantages, the bioremediation is essentially positive and can be progressively enhanced by modern biotechnological techniques that are related to the generation of more degrading and more resistant engineered organisms. This is a sustainable solution that provides a fundamental and innovative contribution to conventional physicochemical treatments. The resources of environmental biotechnology can, therefore, be used as tangible technological solutions for the treatment of textile dye effluents and are related to the ethical imperative of ensuring the minimum necessary for a quality life for the humankind.

A. Osman, Lin Chen, Mingyu Yang et al.

Energy derived from fossil fuels contributes significantly to global climate change, accounting for more than 75% of global greenhouse gas emissions and approximately 90% of all carbon dioxide emissions. Alternative energy from renewable sources must be utilized to decarbonize the energy sector. However, the adverse effects of climate change, such as increasing temperatures, extreme winds, rising sea levels, and decreased precipitation, may impact renewable energies. Here we review renewable energies with a focus on costs, the impact of climate on renewable energies, the impact of renewable energies on the environment, economy, and on decarbonization in different countries. We focus on solar, wind, biomass, hydropower, and geothermal energy. We observe that the price of solar photovoltaic energy has declined from $0.417 in 2010 to $0.048/kilowatt-hour in 2021. Similarly, prices have declined by 68% for onshore wind, 60% for offshore wind, 68% for concentrated solar power, and 14% for biomass energy. Wind energy and hydropower production could decrease by as much as 40% in some regions due to climate change, whereas solar energy appears the least impacted energy source. Climate change can also modify biomass productivity, growth, chemical composition, and soil microbial communities. Hydroelectric power plants are the most damaging to the environment; and solar photovoltaics must be carefully installed to reduce their impact. Wind turbines and biomass power plants have a minimal environmental impact; therefore, they should be implemented extensively. Renewable energy sources could decarbonize 90% of the electricity industry by 2050, drastically reducing carbon emissions, and contributing to climate change mitigation. By establishing the zero carbon emission decarbonization concept, the future of renewable energy is promising, with the potential to replace fossil fuel-derived energy and limit global temperature rise to 1.5 °C by 2050.

S. Bhatt, Subhankar Chatterjee

Antibiotics play an essential role in the medical healthcare world, but their widespread usage and high prevalence have posed negative environmental consequences. During the past few decades, various antibiotic drugs have been detected in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Among them, the Fluoroquinolones (FQ) group is ubiquitous in the environment and has emerged as a major environmental pollutant. FQs are very significant, broad-spectrum antibiotics used in treating various pathogenic diseases of humans and animals. The most known and used FQs are ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin, ofloxacin, levofloxacin, enrofloxacin, danofloxacin, and moxifloxacin. After human and animal administration, about 70% of these drugs are excreted out in unaltered form into the environment. Besides, wastewater discharge from pharmaceutical industries, hospitals, and agriculture runoff is the major contributor to the accumulation of FQs into the ecosystem. Their long-term presence in the environment creates selection pressure on microorganisms and contributes to the emergence of multi-drug-resistant bacteria. In addition to the resistance, these antibiotics also impose ecotoxicological effects on various animals and plant species. The presence of the fluorine atom in Fluoroquinolones makes them highly electronegative, strong, recalcitrant, and less compatible with microbial degradation. Many biological and chemical processes have been invented and successfully implemented during the past few decades for the elimination of these pollutants from the environment. This review provides a detailed overview of the classification, occurrence, distribution, and ecotoxicological effects of Fluoroquinolones. Their modes of action, resistance mechanism, detection and analysis methods, and remediation strategies have also been discussed in detail.

Ruba Maarouf, Vazeer Mahammood, P. Jagadeeswara Rao

Land-use alterations and changes in land cover (LULC) in the Nagavalli Basin from the years 2000 to 2030 were incisively formulated through machine learning methods. Five years after 2000, this study was adopted to provide a thirty-year cumulative assessment period. Considering 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, 2020, and finally 2025, satellite imagery was analyzed for LULC using a Random Forest (RF) classification model. To create the LULC scenario for the year 2030, the classified data set for this study was applied to ANN modeling techniques, projecting historical trends for future scenario forecasting. The results showed a drastic reduction of agricultural land, dwindling from 32.15% in 2000 to an estimated 6.32% by 2030. Forest cover underwent another decrease, from 50.30 to 32.56%. Impressive growth pressures on the natural ecosystem have increased aquaculture from 0.61% in 2000 to 8.03% in 2030 in terms of land use priorities. Also, a significant increase in wasteland has been projected, with estimates indicating that by 2030, wastelands will encompass 35.03% of the study area. Regarding the relative increase in built-up area percentage, a continuous upward trend indicates that gradual urbanization has also been taking place. Grasslands had an erratic pattern but skyrocketed towards the year 2030, while water bodies across the study area maintained their coherence. The combined effort by the RF and ANN models resulted in an impressive performance towards historical classifications and future predictions. The phenomenal transformation patterns of LULC indicate the anthropogenic pressure exerted on the Nagavalli Basin and would motivate and signal.

Fengxiao Zhao, Hongyuan Chen, Danni Li et al.

Livestock manure is enriched with heavy metals such as copper, zinc, and cadmium due to feed additives and intensive farming practices. Inadequate management can lead to soil accumulation, nutrient cycle disruption, and ecosystem risks. Pyrolysis, as a versatile thermochemical process, simultaneously enables pollutant control, energy recovery, nutrient recycling, and heavy metal stabilization. This review integrates mechanistic insights with sustainability-oriented evaluation, linking thermochemical transformations to agricultural applications and policy frameworks. We examine thermal-induced changes in heavy metal speciation and mobility, highlighting stabilization through encapsulation, complexation, and mineralization, while also critically assessing sequential extraction methods. The synergistic effects of co-pyrolysis and mineral additives are further discussed. By bridging molecular-scale mechanisms with sustainable resource management, this work provides a cross-disciplinary perspective to guide safe biochar reuse, integrated manure management, and broader sustainability goals.

Sanjeet Kumar and Sanjay Kumar

Globally, e-waste plastic recycling has emerged as a more popular and creative way to manage electronic waste, which is also being accepted since this resource is available in enormous amounts, comprises many kinds of hazardous components, and possesses a very low recycling rate. Growing urbanization, industrialization, and economic expansion are driving global concrete production, causing pollution and depleting natural resources. Using e-waste plastic as a natural aggregate presents a novel method for conserving resources and addressing the challenges of electronic waste, plastic, and concrete production. This article discusses different e-waste plastic types, techniques for producing e-plastic aggregates, and their application in traditional concrete. Additionally, this study examined the behavior of e-waste plastic aggregates, which affect various concrete characteristics. These include fresh properties such as workability, as well as hardened characteristics such as density (both fresh and dried), splitting tension strength, flexural strength, compressive strength, and durability aspects such as chloride attack and thermal resistance. Reusing electronic waste plastic as aggregates is also a new hope for protecting the environment and guaranteeing the secure disposal of the enormous amount of e-plastic waste generated. However, additional research is needed to address e-waste disposal challenges and its use in conventional concrete.

Madeleine Pries, Walther Zeug, Daniela Thrän

Global food supply and intensive agriculture significantly impact social, economic, and ecological sustainability. Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) strives to transform regional food networks by connecting producers and consumers. Although intrinsically more sustainable due to agroecological farming, short supply chains, and regional cooperation, no assessment has yet quantified the sustainability benefits of CSA. No Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) has been conducted in Germany, and only a few studies have been carried out in Europe to identify the impacts and improvement potentials of CSA. A Holistic and Integrated Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment (HILCSA) was applied to a CSA in Leipzig, Germany, offering a novel integrative approach to analyze CSA benefits and impacts compared to a conventional reference in all three sustainability dimensions. Seven different fruits and vegetables produced by the CSA and distributed to schools in Leipzig were assessed. Based on 82 indicators, the results showed that CSA has 63 % fewer sustainability risks compared to the conventional German food market. All substitution factors of impacts aggregated to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were below 1.0, indicating a positive contribution by the CSA. Additionally, replacing conventional supply with supply from the CSA to 200 pupils can avoid 1 ton of CO2 equivalents over one school year. Resource efficiency emerged as a key area for improvement, as the CSA had significantly lower yields than conventional production. However, it had similar water, land, and energy uses per hectare. At the same time, the highest upstream impacts were caused by Spent Mushroom Substrate (SMS) applied as organic fertilizer. The findings highlight the potential of CSA to drive regional socio-ecological transformation while suggesting improvements in resource efficiency.

Alex Huamán De La Cruz, Gina Luna-Canchari, Nicole Mendoza-Soto, Daniel Alvarez Tolentino, Ronald Jacobi Lorenzo, Armando Calcina Colqui, Geovany Vilchez Casas, Julio Mariños Alfaro and Roger Aguilar Rojas

Sandy soils are not suitable for agriculture because they do not retain nutrients, and water drains quickly. The biochar applied to these soils provides nutrients, improves their fertility, and favors crop yields. Thus, this work aimed to evaluate the effect of the application of pine biochar and the pruning of green areas obtained by slow pyrolysis on the physicochemical attributes of sandy soil. For this purpose, a greenhouse experiment was conducted in fifteen pots randomly divided into three groups (five replicas) of treatment depending on the dose of biochar: 0% (0 g/pot, T1 control treatment), 10% (100 g/pot, T2), and 25% (250 g/pot, T3) calculated according to the volume of the soil. Likewise, 05 seeds of turnip (Brassica rapa subsp. rapa) were placed in each pot, where their germination and growth were monitored. Application of biochar reported an increase in organic matter, porosity, pH, electrical conductivity, cation exchange capacity, NO3-, K, and Mg (without significant differences) and a reduction in bulk density, P, and Ca (without significant differences). These behaviors were higher in T3, followed by T2, compared to T1. Similarly, T3 (68%, 7.5 ± 0.9 cm) showed a higher number of turnip germinations and growth compared to T2 (48%, 7 ± 0.6 cm) and T1 (28% 6 ± 0.4 cm). The biochar applied improved the attributes of the sandy soil, strengthening it against possible erosion and promoting the preservation of terrestrial ecosystems.

Ayşe Kaplan Sarısaltık, Tore Gulden, Casper Boks

This scoping literature review aimed to understand state-of-the-art knowledge about plastic consumption in the context of daily life by identifying controversies and interventions addressed in the reviewed articles. First, we reviewed articles based on theoretical approaches, methodologies, and country contexts. Second, using a concept map, we analyzed key concepts and dilemmas inherent in plastic consumption, highlighting its complexity. Third, we identified various approaches to interventions for reducing plastic consumption, along with stakeholders' perceived responsibilities to initiate and implement these changes. We found that in the existing research, behavioral studies are central to the investigations of plastic consumption and primarily focus on single-use plastic products (SUPs), yet within a very narrow scope of product variation. Hence, much of the existing research concentrates on a narrow subset of SUP items, while other significant SUPs and consumer products remain underexplored. We argue that the challenges associated with plastics extend far beyond individual behaviors related to specific products and materials. Finally, we identified research gaps and proposed future studies to expand the scope of plastic products covered, adopt systemic approaches to plastic consumption dilemmas, and explore relational and holistic perspectives beyond disciplinary norms. Drawing on the research-policy nexus on plastic consumption, we emphasize the importance of critically reflecting on how knowledge is produced and applied in policymaking. To achieve just and sustainable transitions, policymakers should prioritize equitable solutions that do not disproportionately burden specific stakeholders, such as consumers, while holding all relevant parties accountable.

Sabreen Bashir, Maqsood A Siddiqui, Abdulaziz A Al-Khedhairy et al.

Cannabis sativa (Hemp) is renowned for its diverse applications across multiple industries. This versatile plant is utilized in food production, paper manufacturing, pharmaceutical development, cosmetic formulations, biofuel generation, and most notably, in the textile sector. The hemp fiber’s mechanical performance, low cost, and environmental sustainability make it a promising alternative to conventional fiber but the plant is highly susceptible to several agronomic and environmental factors, particularly herbicides. Our research investigates the impact of glyphosate and metribuzin herbicides on Cannabis sativa fiber quantity and quality. Cellulose and hemicellulose content, mechanical properties, and morphological features of fiber from treated plants were analyzed. Herbicide treatments significantly affected fiber composition and properties. Treatment with low-concentration glyphosate resulted in a reduction of both cellulose and hemicellulose content, whereas low-concentration metribuzin induced a slight increase in cellulose levels. Exposure to high concentrations of either herbicide led to a significant decrease in both cellulose and hemicellulose components. Mechanical tests and X-Ray Diffraction revealed that low-concentration glyphosate weakened fiber’s tensile strength, whereas low-concentration metribuzin enhanced it. However, high concentrations of both herbicides decreased tensile strength. Bast fiber content initially increased with low herbicide concentrations but declined at higher levels. Scanning electron microscopy revealed progressive structural damage to fiber with increasing herbicide concentrations. Glyphosate caused surface disruption, while metribuzin induced more severe degradation, including surface erosion and bubbling at high concentrations. These findings highlight the complex effects of glyphosate and metribuzin on Cannabis sativa fiber properties, emphasizing the need for careful consideration of herbicide use in hemp cultivation for textile production.

Mohammad Bellal Hoque, Tanzim Hossain Oyshi, Md. Abdul Hannan et al.

The textile industry, being a giant consumer of water and chemicals, uses synthetic dyes on a wide scale because of their low cost and wide color gamut. In contrast, synthetic dyes have shown great environmental hazards. A notable feature of textile dyes is their resistance to biodegradation, which contributes to long-lasting pollution in water, soil, and the atmosphere. The water body ecosystems are contaminated with dye-laden wastewater resulting from textile manufacturing. Photosynthetic activity is prevented, hence decreasing oxygen levels in water and drastically affecting aquatic life. Moreover, improper sludge disposal containing dyes leads to the degradation of soil quality, impacting plant health and microbial activities. Such pollutants can exhibit bioaccumulation in organisms, enhancing toxicity via the food chain and presenting serious health risks to humans, including carcinogenic effects and genetic malfunction. The paper reviews new developments related to ecologically friendly dyes, advanced wastewater treatments, and circular economies involving dye recycling and waterless dyeing techniques that are key to reducing the environmental impact of these dyes. Also needed is rigid enforcement of regulations coupled with the wider diffusion of sustainable technologies to minimize environmental damage in the textile industry and protect natural ecosystems and human health.

A. Singh, V. Bhakar, G. Gaurav et al.

Assessing the sustainability of milk production in India (the largest milk producer country in the world) is essential to ensure that the dairy industry can meet the growing demands for dairy products while minimizing its negative impact on the environment, society, and the well-being of the people involved in the sector.Current research is intended to compare the emissions associated with packed milk production in two contrasting states, Punjab (an Indian state with helpful agricultural resources and plenty of water) and Rajasthan (a state with a significant desert area) of India. The dairy industry has to undergo different production processes, including livestock, feed, farming, transportation, processing, packaging, and distribution. All of these production steps generate environmental impacts. This study aims to compare the environmental impacts of milk production in Punjab and Rajasthan by understanding the variation in the ecological effects due to the modifications adopted in dairy practices.This study uses Umberto LCA+ with Ecoinvent v3.6 dataset as a Life cycle assessment (LCA) tool and data collected from milk producers and processing plants. The primary data was collected from farmers (milk producers) and dairy plants (processing plants), real-time observations, and inputs from the processing plant staff. The LCA analysis was performed, including parameters such as feed agriculture, milking, storage, transportation, processing, packaging, and distribution.The analysis results indicate that milk production in Punjab is more environmentally efficient than in Rajasthan, and the feed required for cattle is a critical environmental impact-generating activity along with the selection of packaging material for processed milk.The current article assesses the environmental implications of milk production. The study employs a comprehensive analysis to inform sustainable practices and reduce the ecological footprint of this crucial industry.

Juomana Jabbar Saeed, Maryam Jasim Hasan, Estabraq Mohammed Ati, Reyam Naji Ajmi, Abdalkader Saeed Latif and Hala Ahmed Rasheed

Oil spills can have varying degrees of impact on the aquatic environment depending on factors such as the type of oil spilled, the volume released, and the ecosystem affected because crude oil and refined petroleum contain harmful substances such as hydrocarbons, heavy metals, and toxic chemicals. When released into the water, these substances can have immediate and long-term effects on marine life. This research aims to find the factors affecting the degree of pollution from oil spills on the aquatic environment and the areas adjacent to the Qayyarah refinery in northern Iraq. Combines the fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method and the analytical hierarchy process to evaluate the degree of pollution from oil spill incidents in the areas adjacent to the refinery. The statistical analysis showed that there were statistically significant differences and that the value of the correlation coefficient was positive between exchanged cadmium, residual cadmium, exchanged lead, where the lead exchange rate ranged correlation coefficient at a minimum R² 0.674 and a clear increase in the number of bacteria indicating contamination the total number of bacteria coli, fecal coliform bacteria, and fecal strep bacteria (where the numbers of coliform bacteria ranged 102 × 102- (cells/011 mL, and fecal coliform bacteria were between 160 × 102 cells/011 mL. These rates are environmental and vital indicators of the presence of significant levels of organic pollution and evidence of the presence of microorganisms dangerous to the health of residents and living organisms.

Jaluza Maria Lima Silva Borsatto, Carla Bonato Marcolin, Etienne Cardoso Abdalla et al.

Purpose: Considering the role of community outreach of a Higher Education Institution (HEI) in promoting sustainable regional development, based on the objectives of the UN 2030 Agenda, the present study aims to verify, with the usage of an Artificial Intelligence (AI) tool, the alignment of community outreach actions of an HEI to the SDGs and identify its actions with the greatest impact. Design/methodology/approach: The study is descriptive through a case study at a university in Brazil. Documentary analysis was carried out using data on more than 15,000 community outreach projects developed from 2009 to 2022, using natural language processing (NLP). In addition to the descriptive aspects, combining NLP with statistical techniques allowed us to discuss the alignment between community outreach projects and the SDGs from a longitudinal perspective. Findings: The results demonstrated that the main SDGs in community outreach actions are SDG 17: Partnerships and Means of Implementation; SDG 4: Quality Education; SDG 12: Sustainable Consumption and Production and SDG 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth. These results are prominent because community outreach aims to establish a dialogical relationship between society and the university, conceiving the exchange of knowledge based on the actions developed and sharing knowledge with those involved in community extension. Originality: The use of AI technologies to identify and monitor data on community outreach actions in HEI towards the SDGs, and to propose ways to share this information with internal and external stakeholders of the institution.

M. Sultana, Al Ibne Shahariar Nibir, Fazle Rabbi Shakil Ahmed

In this study, we present a low-cost, environmentally friendly method for producing silver, copper, and iron nanoparticles using fresh Catharanthus roseus leaf extract. The biomolecules found in the plant extract play a crucial role as stabilizing and reducing agents. The spectral profile of the UV–visible spectrophotometer was measured to confirm and identify the biosynthesized nanoparticles. The synthesized nanoparticles were tested for biosensing activities and anti-inflammatory effects. UV–visible spectra showed a prominent surface resonance peak of 415 nm, 300 nm, and 400 nm, corresponding to the formation of silver, copper, and iron nanoparticles, respectively. The in vitro anti-inflammatory properties of the synthesized AgNPs, CuNPs, and FeNPs showed the maximum inhibition of protein denaturation at 58%, 54.15%, and 44.26% at a concentration of 400 µg/ml, respectively. Furthermore, at a 400 µg/ml concentration, Diclofenac, utilized as a control, showed a maximal inhibition of 93.37%. According to the biosensing activity, these nanoparticles are also a good source for biosensing hazardous heavy salts. So, this article provides the first description of the silver, copper, and iron nanoparticles from Catharanthus roseus leave biosensing capabilities and anti-inflammatory characteristics. Overall, this study revealed that due to their biocompatibility, silver, copper, and iron nanoparticles could be appealing and environmentally acceptable options that could be used as innovative therapeutic agents for the prevention and treatment of inflammation. The primary outcome of the research will be the development of potential pharmaceutical uses for the C. roseus medicinal plant in the biomedical and nanotechnology-based industries.

Gina Tüfer, Thomas A. Brunner

To date, there is no evidence on how food user value influences the intention to waste food at home. We experimentally tested the influence of the freshness of tomatoes and them being grown in/on one’s garden/balcony on the intention to waste tomatoes at home (n = 454). We uncovered a significantly lower intention to waste them if they were described as still fresh (versus no longer fresh) and a lower intention to waste them if they were homegrown (versus bought). It did not make a difference whether fresh tomatoes were store-bought or homegrown. However, once the tomatoes were no longer fresh, the purchased tomatoes were much more likely to be thrown away than the homegrown tomatoes.

Setyawan Purnama, Ahmad Cahyadi, Andung Bayu Sekaranom et al.

Like other natural resources, groundwater is also being exploited at an increasing rate, especially for domestic requirements. Groundwater is preferred as a domestic water source because of its continuous availability and relatively good quality. Unfortunately, not all places have sufficient groundwater availability of good quality. The purpose of this study was to analyze the characteristics of the aquifer in the study area and evaluate its groundwater potential for domestic needs. Aquifer characteristics were determined based on geological and geomorphological conditions, while groundwater potential was calculated using a static approach. The results showed that the characteristics of the aquifers in Kediri Regency are various. In the eastern and central parts of the study area, the characteristics of the aquifer can be in the form of unconfined aquifers with high productivity. In the western part, most of them have non-aquifer material, so it is difficult to find groundwater. Groundwater generally fills joints and diaclase formed in andesitic lava with low discharge. Although the conditions of the aquifer are various, in general, the potential for groundwater in Kediri Regency can still support its requirements because the potential for groundwater in Kediri Regency is 71,121,313,394 m3, while domestic requirements is 52,348,490 m3/year.

A. Karnaeva, A. L. Milyushkin, Z. Khesina et al.

Silin Yang, Pengrui Du, Yungen Liu, Yan Wang, Rong Ma and Yunhui Gong

Reduced nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) released from sediments in rural areas pose a significant challenge to residential sewage treatment and management. Under different disturbance velocities, simulation experiments were undertaken to investigate the effect of disturbance on the release of N and P from rural ditch sediments into the water at the water-sediment interface. No significant difference in the release characteristics of N and P was found among different disturbance velocities. The release fluxes of TN and NH4+-N in the non-disturbance water body were significantly higher than in the disturbance water body, which suggests that increasing water flow influences the release of TN and NH4+-N from sediment into the water. The release fluxes of TP and PO43--P were significantly lower in non-disturbance than the disturbance water body, which suggested that disturbance increased the release of TP and PO43--P in sediments. For both disturbance and non-disturbance conditions, TN and NH4+-N in the sediment were rapidly released into the water body at 0-10 days, and TP and PO43--P steadily rose in the disturbance water body until stabilizing after 20 days. TN, NH4+-N, TP, and PO43--P concentrations all had a negative correlation with DO, and the correlations between TN and NH4+-N were substantial. The percentages of a certain N or P speciation fraction in sediments did not alter between disturbance and non-disturbance conditions, implying that disturbance had no effect on N or P speciation.

Lihua Zhou, Liyuan Yang, Qiu Fang et al.

Several examples of androdioecy appear to have evolved from dioecy and have low male frequency (< 0.5). However, the evolutionary pathway to androdioecy in Oleaceae may come from hermaphroditism. Osmanthus fragrans L. has a 1:1 sex ratio in nature populations. Significant differences are observed not only in flowering phenology but also in some floral traits between males and hermaphrodites. The protandry in the same population and the protogyny in the same plant may promote the xenogamy between genders. The majority of flower traits related with the pollen production are different between males and hermaphrodites. Males bear more flowering nodes, and more flowers per node, and larger anther in all three populations. This characteristic demonstrated that males have more male advantage than hermaphrodites. Population genetic structure of O. fragrans is genetically homogeneous at the species level, and most variations exist within a population. The percentage of variation among populations (13%) and between males and hermaphrodites (0%) is low. Moreover, genetic differentiation was very low between genders not only among populations but also in the same population. This genetic variation could be attributed to the occurrence of high levels of xenogamy between genders. Therefore, high male frequency and more male fitness advantage in males are the essential conditions for this mating system, which plays an important role during population reproduction and regeneration. The 1:1 sex ratio could be the result of integrative effects of sexual system, mating system, and reproductive success.