Hasil untuk "Balance of trade"

Teng Zhang

Achieving a balance between high spatial resolution, minimal crosstalk, and long-term stability remains a critical challenge in the design of flexible tactile sensor arrays for robotic applications. While increasing array density enhances perception, it often compromises signal integrity due to mechanical coupling. To address these conflicting objectives, this paper proposes a multi-objective co-design strategy for a finger-interdigitated piezoresistive sensor based on carbon nanotubes and polyimide. Using the COMSOL Multiphysics simulation platform, the performance of three array density configurations—2 × 2, 3 × 3, and 4 × 4—under static pressure and creep conditions was systematically analyzed. A key theoretical finding is that the normalized piezoresistive sensitivity remains independent of array density, demonstrating the excellent scalability of the proposed architecture. Performance trade-offs, however, are significant: the low-density (2 × 2) array offers superior mechanical isolation but suffers from greater long-term drift, while the high-density (4 × 4) array provides the best creep resistance and wide-range stability at the cost of higher crosstalk. A comprehensive evaluation reveals that the 3 × 3 array achieves an optimal balance, with moderate crosstalk and excellent stability, making it the most suitable configuration for practical applications such as robotic fingers that require both sensing accuracy and reliability. This study provides a theoretical foundation and design guidelines for optimizing the trade-offs in high-density flexible skins.

Dithma Methmini, Nimesha Dharmapriya, Sandali Edirisinghe et al.

Balancing economic growth with sustainability has been a significant challenge over the past decades, largely due to the environmental damage caused by carbon emissions. This study investigates the relationship between energy consumption, gross domestic product (GDP), and trade openness and their impact on carbon emissions in 28 countries in the American region from 2000 to 2022. Using a multiple linear regression model for country-level analysis, the findings reveal diverse trends across the region. For instance, countries such as Antigua and Barbuda, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, and Guatemala demonstrate a strong link between economic growth and increased carbon emissions. In contrast, developed nations such as the United States and Canada show signs of decoupling GDP growth from emissions, supporting the Environmental Kuznets Curve hypothesis, which suggests that higher income levels lead to reduced environmental degradation. The study highlights the importance of tailored, country-specific strategies to reduce emissions while promoting sustainable economic growth. A thorough understanding of the complex relationships between gross domestic product, energy consumption, trade openness, and carbon emissions will enable policymakers to devise strategies that balance ecological sustainability with socio-economic objectives.

Wang Xingfu, Liu Yi, Xiong Kangning et al.

In this study, we explored the supportive functions of soil organic carbon (SOC) for ecosystem services in karst rocky desertification areas. A total of 200 soil samples were taken from various land use types, including grassland, forest and, agroforestry, and bare land in each rocky desertification location. The total SOC and its fractions, nitrogen (TN), phosphorus (TP), and potassium (TK) concentrations and the soil moisture were measured. The ecosystem service functions of soil nutrient retention, soil conservation, and carbon balance responses to the SOC were analyzed. The trade-off/synergy relationship between all the factors was discussed, and the shortcomings of the different ecosystems were identified. Finally, an optimization model with high synergy between each ecosystem service was proposed. The results showed that the SOC varies greatly under different rocky desertification levels, with values ranging from 11.28 to 35.08 g·kg−1 and a mean of 23.80 g·kg−1. The SOC content in the different rocky desertification levels was as follows, in descending order: moderate to intense > potential to mild > nonexistent to potential. Meanwhile, the SOC content in the different ecosystems was as follows, in descending order: agroforestry land > forest land > grassland. The values range of TN, TP, and TK were 1.04 to 2.95, 0.38 to 1.29, and 1.17 to 13.60 g·kg−1 respectively, and their average values were 2.01, 1.06, and 5.37 g·kg−1. The SOC can promote the benefits of TN, TP, and TK, prevent erosion, and improve soil moisture and carbon storage to a certain extent. There was a high synergy between each of the factors in the soil of the agroforestry ecosystems, especially SOC, TN, and TP in the nonexistent to potential rocky desertification area. The agroforestry models “forest-grain”, “forest-fruit”, “forest-vegetable” and “forest-medicine” can be used as extension models of the artificial ecosystem, which can promote ecosystem service synergy and the comprehensive control of rocky desertification in the South China Karst.

Ruyuan Hu, Haiping Zhao, Jia Yang et al.

Integrating ecosystem services (ESs) into ecological security patterns (ESPs) provides a comprehensive framework for recognizing critical conservation areas and enhancing regional ecological security. However, previous studies are predominantly based on ES supply, while often not fully considering the supply–demand balance and its dynamic trends. This study proposed a comprehensive framework including comprehensive supply–demand ratio (CSDR), CSDR trend, total supply trend, and trade-off to revise ecological source recognition. Subsequently, ecological resistance surfaces were revised using land use and nighttime light data. Finally, corridors and strategic nodes were further recognized according to circuit theory to establish a comprehensive ESP. Selecting Three Gorges Reservoir Area as a research case, the results show that the ecological sources (18,232.59 km2) are predominantly situated in the eastern regions and parts of the southern bank of the Yangtze River with high supply and low ecological risks and trade-off levels. The low value of the resistance surfaces is distributed consistently with ecological sources, and the high value of the resistance surfaces is distributed near the cities with high population density and demand. Two hundred sixty-six key ecological corridors and 195 pinch points connected the regions into an organic whole and barrier points, with an area of 285.96 km2 overlapping with the potential corridors. These findings offer guidance for regional planning and sustainable development.

Brandon A. Lurie, Stuart Kari, Marc Horner et al.

Engineers use finite element analysis (FEA) to predict the deformations, strains, stresses, and resistive forces of metallic stent frames under in vivo, in vitro, and manufacturing-induced loading conditions. The discretization of the geometric model influences the simulation predictions, with the error generally reducing with mesh refinement. This improved accuracy comes with the trade-off of requiring more resources. Since FEA influences decisions that carry patient and business risk, engineers must balance the computational cost against numerical accuracy. This paper explores a methodology for selecting the mesh discretization for a computational model of an implantable stent frame based on discretization error, computational cost, and the risk associated with using the model to inform a specific decision. The methodology includes estimating the exact solution for the numerical model, calculating the discretization error and computational cost for various mesh discretization options, and considering the error and cost when selecting one of the options. The method was applied to a laser-cut nitinol stent model for four different finite element solvers to demonstrate its real-world applicability and that it is agnostic to solver type and developer. We were able to estimate the exact solution to the numerical model with a 95% confidence interval using submodeling, a geometry representative of the full stent frame, and four systematically refined meshes. The selection of the mesh discretization is subjective, with the importance of each model’s computational cost dependent on the number of simulations, resource availability, and risk. Three real-world implantable medical device examples of using FEA to inform a project decision are presented, each with a mesh discretization option suggested and rationalized based on the discretization error and computational costs. FEA’s important role in developing implantable stent frames and providing evidence of their safety to decision makers and regulatory bodies underscores the need for a method to select a suitable mesh discretization. The methodology explored in this paper calculates the error in the model’s prediction due to discretization and the computational cost. A project team can use this information and the risk associated with using the model to select and rationalize a specific mesh discretization.

Ivan V. Krivushin

The significance of the research topic is predetermined by the importance of the problem of building relations between the Russian Federation and the countries of the Global South during the period of aggravation of the geopolitical confrontation between Russia and the West, especially after the start of a Special Military Operation in Ukraine (SMO) in February 2022. The research endeavors to determine the nature of Brazil’s policy towards Russia, Ukraine and the SMO, and to identify which factors influenced this policy in 2022-2024. Based on the analysis of UN documents, parliamentary materials and trade and economic statistics, the author comes to conclusion that an official stance of the president (Planalto), regardless of political and ideological orientation of whoever held the office (right-wing populist J. Bolsonaro or left-centrist L.I. Lula da Silva), was seemingly neutral, equidistant from either side of the conflict, but in fact, rather pro-Russian, as evidenced primarily by an obvious unwillingness to blame Moscow for the Ukrainian crisis. The balance of information indicates that the Planalto’s caution in developing Brazil’s policy towards the SMO was caused, on the one hand, by strong pressure from the pro-Ukrainian members of the National Congress and its unwillingness to aggravate relations with the West, and, on the other, by Brazil’s economic dependence on the Russian Federation, primarily on the supply of mineral fertilizers, of great importance to Brazil’s agribusiness. Thus, unlike a number of Western researchers, the author infers that the leading role in determining Brazil’s position towards the events in Ukraine and, in general, to the geopolitical confrontation between the Russian Federation and the West was played by internal (political and economic), and not foreign policy factors.

Baoguo Chen, Fengde Chen

This study investigates the evolutionary mechanisms and equilibrium character-istics of the China–US trade dispute through an improved ecological competition model. By quantifying tariff policies as competition intensity regulators and introducing trade elasticity parameters, we construct a dynamic system that captures the nonlinear feedback between economic rivals. Key findings are as follows. (1) When both nations implement reciprocal tariff measures with similar economic sensitivities, the system converges to a stable equilibrium where bilateral economic outputs stabilize at reduced levels compared to pre-conflict states, provided the product of adjusted competition coefficients remains below critical thresholds. (2) Excessive tariff escalation beyond identifiable tipping points triggers winner-takes-all outcomes, validating the “Thucydides Trap” hypothesis in eco-nomic conflicts. (3) Empirical simulations using 2018–2023 trade data demonstrate that China’s tit-for-tat tariff strategy effectively maintains competitive balance, while domestic market expansion measures (evidenced by a 6.3% average annual growth in China’s do-mestic consumption) significantly mitigate trade diversion effects. The study establishes theoretical connections with optimal tariff theory and strategic trade policy literature while providing policymakers with quantitative tools to assess trade policy impacts. Our find-ings theoretically validate China’s policy combination of calibrated reciprocity and domestic demand stimulation, offering new insights into managing great-power economic competition.

XIE Guangqiang, WU Yebin, LI Yang

Making full use of the high-order information in the multi-agent network structure can effectively enforce the multi-agent consensus.The algorithm proposed by motif-aware weighted multi-agent system(MWMS) focuses on the extraction of connection information in the complex network,ignoring the fragment information in the network,resulting in a large difference in the convergence effect of MWMS when taking different balance parameter values.To address the aforementioned issues,this paper proposes an alpha-adaptive motif-aware weighted multi-agent system(AMWMS) to reveal the regulatory patterns of balance parameters for MASs in hybrid-order networks.Firstly,this paper proposes methods for quantifying the degree of high-order network fragmentation based on Jaccard similarity and the degree of low-order network fragmentation based on relative distance,which are used for modeling different layer network fragment information.Secondly,an adaptive parameter generation hybrid-order network(APGHNet) is designed,and its balance parameter can adaptively change during system evolution.Finally,this paper proposes a motif-aware weighted multi-agent consensus protocol with trade-off parameter adaptation.Simulation results show that the balance parameter adaptive method of the new protocol is effective by comparing with the consistency protocol in MWMS,and the system can eventually converge to fewer clusters to enforce the system consensus.

Kiwoong Lee, Soon Jin Yun, Minsoo Kim et al.

Background: The study was carried out to analyze the temporal changes of trade-offs (TOs) between two ecosystem services (ESs) before and after thinning in a Pinus koraiensis plantation on Mt. Gari from 2006 to 2021. As target variables, aboveground carbon (AGC) storage and species richness (SR) were chosen for regulating and supporting services. Thinning was applied from 2007 through 2008 with three treatments: 1) light thinning (LT), 2) heavy thinning (HT), and 3) control (Con).Results: Thinning influenced both AGC and SR. In 2021, AGC in the Con (111.1 t C ha-1) was significantly higher compared to the LT (82.0 t C ha-1) and HT (60.4 t C ha-1) after thinning from 2007 to 2008. Also, SR was marginally higher in the LT (94 species) than in the Con (55 species) and HT (87 species) in 2011. Relative benefits of AGC and SR showed similar trends with the obtained values. In addition, the effects of thinning on TO varied among treatments and over time, demonstrating different degrees of TO between the two ESs. In the LT, TO was 0.13 in 2006 and slightly increased to 0.2 by 2021. TO in the HT exhibited a relatively rapid increase from 0.22 in 2006 to 0.58 by 2021, while To in the Con fluctuated, rising to 0.36 in 2011 from 0.1 in 2006 and decreasing to 0.25 by 2021. Among the three treatments, the degree of TOs between the two ESs was the lowest in the LT.Conclusions: Depending on thinning intensities, the responses of ESs and the degree of TOs vary. Regarding the balance between enhancements and TOs in ESs among treatments, the LT treatment showing intermediate carbon storage, higher SR, and lower TOs will be a proper silvicultural application.

Rafał Wyszomierski, Piotr Bórawski, Lisa Holden et al.

One of the most important problems in economic development is the supply of stable amounts of renewable energy sources, including biomass. The production of biomass in Poland is not satisfactory; thus, this country has to import this product. As with other products, the trade of stable biomass includes both imports and exports and depends on the price and other characteristics of the market. This research aimed to assess the biomass trade in terms of energy and evaluate changes and trends in the import and export of biomass in Poland and its characteristics. Moreover, the export specialization index (SI index), Grubel–Lloyd index (IITk index) and foreign trade coverage index (CRK index) were evaluated. The considerations were based on the biomass trade in the context of environmental economics. This research found that the neighboring countries of Poland are the most important partners in both imports and exports. Germany and Lithuania are the most important countries in the trade of woody biomass. The export specialization index (SI index), in 2005–2008, was positive and growing, which means that exports exceeded imports; then, in 2009, there was a decline; from 2010 to 2013, the balance increased again, reaching significant positive values until 2019; and, in 2020, there was a decline. The Grubel–Lloyd index for the Polish wood and forestry industry showed a dynamic evolution in the analyzed period of 2005–2020, which reflects the industry’s adaptive strategies in the face of global changes. Raw wood and veneer sheets are more volatile, which may indicate periodic shifts in the structure of foreign trade and the flexibility of producers to respond to international trends and demands. The CRK index in the years 2005–2020 presents an astonishing picture of changes in competitiveness and the ability to maintain the balance of imports and exports. The significant increase in the ratio of firewood and raw wood may reflect an increase in interest in renewable energy sources and the expansion of the industry into new markets.

Arzu Melek Ozgumus

It is always very interesting to read the German history, which sheds light on a nation which has been built in less than two centuries and hit almost the top of Human Development Index. The origins of its economic and political dominance can be traced back to the beginning of the German Empire’s formation. In Blood and Iron, Katja Hoyer delves into the rise of German Empire and its eventual fall, leading to the First World War, a pivotal event that reshaped the European map. In the first chapter of the book, Hoyer covers the period between 1815-1871, beginning with the Vienna Congress in 1815, where Austria-Hungary and Prussia started their competition on the hegemony over the German states – which ultimately resolved in favor of Prussia. After defeating Napoleon, Prussia gained Rhineland and Ruhr coalfields during this period hinting at their burgeoning industrial and economic power. Although the German Confederation created at that time was led by Austria, the balance of power began to shift with the rise of Otto von Bismarck in the politics. Bismarck was a junker, landowner nobility, who became a member of the Prussian Parliament in 1847. Following his terms as Ambassador in France and Russia, he was recalled to Berlin by Wilhelm I in 1862 to support passing the military budget. This was the beginning of a relationship between Wilhelm I and Bismarck that will have a defining impact in history, a relationship Hojeremphasizes as having a profound impact on German politics. Starting from this point in the book, Hoyer frequently reminds the reader of the famous “blood and iron” speech of Bismarck, in which he emphasizes that Germany's fate would be determined through decisive military and industrial strength. This speech becomes a recurring theme in Hoyer's analysis.  Bismarck’s Reich, the second chapter of the book, focuses on the years when Bismarck and Kaiser Wilhelm ruled as the Chancellor and Emperor of the German Empire respectively, from 1871 to 1888. It begins with Wilhelm, the King of Prussia, becoming the Emperor of the German Empire, and getting the title of Kaiser Wilhelm on 18 January 1871 in Versailles Place after the defeat of France in the Franco-German was of 1870-71. The chapter introduces the governmental structure of the Reich, which consisted of the Kaiser, Imperial Chancellor, the Bundesrat (the upper of parliament), and Reichstag (the parliament). Hoyer meticulously examines how Bismarck ensures the central role given to Prussia, and how he uses his power and position to create a German national identity. She explores how Bismarck implements a cultural strategy, Kulturkampf, to suppress the religious identities, especially of Catholic minorities under Protestant Prussian rule. Kulturkampf also aimed at the secularization of education and this has been a milestone in the creation of young generations with German identity. Despite resistance and the rise of pro-Catholic Centre Party (Deutsche Zentrumspartei) in politics, Hojer argues the enduring impact of this through the end of the book when discussing the First World War. In this chapter, the writer also briefly mentions the Jewish Question, as it was a significant debate around the same time. She emphasizes events like financial crisis or migration of Polish Jews taking over jobs of Germans which increased anti-Semitism. However, both Kaiser and the Chancellor viewed the Jewish issue as a matter of religion, rather than one of race. Through careful analysis, Hoyer captures the complexities of governance, cultural strategies, and social tensions during this formative period of the German Empire. In this chapter, Hoyer also underlines diplomatic skills of Bismarck. While she doesn’t mention the Concert of Europe when discussing Bismarck’s foreign policy, she clearly indicates how carefully he keeps a balance between all European powers. She criticizes him, in the following parts of the book, for building all his foreign policy around himself, which was doomed to fail after his resignation. The writer kept the third chapter of the book, Three Emperors and a Chancellor, covering the period between 1888 and 1890 notably brief, as this was a transition period. The chapter succinctly outlines key events such as the death of Kaiser Wilhelm, the brief reign of his son Freidrich III, wo passed away in just 99 days after his coronation, and the ascension of son Wilhelm II as the last Kaiser. Bismarck continues to be the Chancellor, counselling three successive emperors. However, the rising tensions and disagreements with Kaiser Wilhelm II ultimately leads to his resignation in 1890. The fourth chapter, Wilhelm’s Reich, serves as the second major segment of the book following Bismarck’s Reich. Hoyer portraits Wilhelm II as a young, ambitious, brave and visionary Emperor, unlike his grandfather’s, more modest and humbler demeanor. Due to his powerful character, Wilhelm II prefers Chancellors that he can easily control, and who can maintain a low profile in the politics. Under Wilhelm II’s leadership, he encourages further technological and industrial development, paving the way to German Empire to get a unique place in global trade with its specialization. While these developments increase the national wealth, but this was not reflected in people’s purchasing power. The working class becomes poorer, despite bankers, mostly Jews, becomes richer. The developing technology causes a decline in the need for workforce, exacerbating the challenges faced by a growing population. Developments in chemistry, resulted in new fertilizers, causes the food prices to decrease and leads the farmers into poverty, who eventually migrate to urban areas to seek jobs. Despite economic turmoil, Wilhelm II sought budget approval from the Reichstag to modernize the army. His ambitions to expand military power, however, intensified with the introduction of Weltpolitik, which was the imperialist foreign policy to make German Empire a world power. The book underlines that Wilhelm II saw Weltpolitik to bring all Germans’ together, including liberals, conservatives, social democrats, proving the power of iron in blood in German politics. Initially the writer expresses her hesitations about the character of Wilhelm II, questioning whether he was intelligent and proactive, or merely ignorant and easily influenced by a small circle of advisors. By the end of the fourth chapter, however, she clearly indicates how easily he was influenced by others, a vulnerability which ultimately leads him to take the decisions that brought his country into the First World War. In the fifth chapter, Catastrophe, Hojer summarizes the First World War and how Germany’s plans failed after the war began. Because of Weltpolitik, Great Britain, France and Russia allies against Germany, culminatinginto a war of attrition where both sides face with heavy loses. By the end of the war, Germany faced inevitable military defeat, widespread poverty among its population, with the British naval blockade worsening the situation. These aspects led to end of the war with armistice negotiations, which forced Kaiser Wilhelm II’s abdication and declaration of Germany as a republic.  In the final chapter, Hoyer concludes by highlighting the flawed foundations of the German nation, “blood and iron”, and how it destroyed borders, empire and military of Germany. But she also emphasizes Bismarck’s legacy and its enduring influence, and that it will survive with the rise of defensive nationalism after the defeat in the First World War. Hoyer summarizes the history of German Empire by touching upon education, literacy, education, religion, economy and socio-cultural changes of the time. She provides a clear picture of the nation-building process that lead to small German states into Germany we know today. Details she focused on, indeed, helps the reader to understand the German society, industry and economy today. Hoyer’s book can be seen as portraying Bismarck as the person who built the German nation -and national identity-, and Wilhelm II as the one who lead to the collapse of the Empire. While this seems a plausible approach initially, the details she provides explain the context of the time. It was the time when the collapse of Ottoman Empire has started, the European powers’ competition over its territory was already risking the Concert of Europe, and there was little chance for small German states to survive without a confederation. She also emphasizes how naturally these states stick to Germany even after the First World War. In other words, while she underlines the top-down nature of policies and transformation of German nation, she also gives hints about how inevitable this change was by focusing on the industrial and economic dynamics of the time.

Nora A Moskowitz, Rachel D'Agui, Aurora Alvarez-Buylla et al.

The ability to acquire chemical defenses through the diet has evolved across several major taxa. Chemically defended organisms may need to balance chemical defense acquisition and nutritional quality of prey items. However, these dietary preferences and potential trade-offs are rarely considered in the framework of diet-derived defenses. Poison frogs (Family Dendrobatidae) acquire defensive alkaloids from their arthropod diet of ants and mites, although their dietary preferences have never been investigated. We conducted prey preference assays with the Dyeing Poison frog (Dendrobates tinctorius) to test the hypothesis that alkaloid load and prey traits influence frog dietary preferences. We tested size preferences (big versus small) within each of four prey groups (ants, beetles, flies, and fly larvae) and found that frogs preferred interacting with smaller prey items of the fly and beetle groups. Frog taxonomic prey preferences were also tested as we experimentally increased their chemical defense load by feeding frogs decahydroquinoline, an alkaloid compound similar to those naturally found in their diet. Contrary to our expectations, overall preferences did not change during alkaloid consumption, as frogs across groups preferred fly larvae over other prey. Finally, we assessed the protein and lipid content of prey items and found that small ants have the highest lipid content while large fly larvae have the highest protein content. Our results suggest that consideration of toxicity and prey nutritional value are important factors in understanding the evolution of acquired chemical defenses and niche partitioning.

Shukria Hotak, Moinul Islam, M. Kakinaka et al.

Hai Liu, Liang Zheng, Jing Wu et al.

Poyang Lake is the largest freshwater lake in China and is an important wetland in the world. The scientific assessment of ecosystem service trade-offs in Poyang Lake Basin is of great significance for maintaining regional ecological balance and global biodiversity. This study uses land use as the main data source and the “equivalent factor method” to estimate the ecosystem service value of the Poyang Lake Basin from 1990 to 2015; the study also analyzes the trade-off synergy among ecosystem services. On this basis, land use information was simulated under three scenarios: planning scenario (government policy-oriented), development scenario (economic benefit-oriented), and protection scenario (ecological protection-oriented). The trade-offs and synergies among ecosystem services under different scenarios were evaluated. The results demonstrate that the ecosystem service value for the entire basin steadily increased from 1990 to 2015. The relationships among ecosystem services in the basin were mainly synergistic, and there were few trade-offs. Among the three simulation scenarios, the ecosystem service value was the highest and the trade-offs among ecosystem services were the lowest under the protection scenario, the ecosystem service value was the lowest and the trade-offs among ecosystem services were the highest under the development scenario, and the trade-offs under the planning scenario were between the values of the protection scenario and the development scenario. From the perspective of maximizing the value of ecosystem services and minimizing trade-offs in ecosystem services, the protection scenario is the optimal scenario among the three scenarios.

Valentina BUTMALAI, Alina Florentina SARACU

International trade between various countries is a significant factor in raising the standard of living, providing jobs and allowing consumers to enjoy a larger variety of goods. Over the last years, international trade has become more and more important, having a growing weight in the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of all countries in the world. International trade was and is still being an important factor in promoting economic growth. This increase has led to a lowering of the absolute poverty level. Along with acquiring the independence of the Republic of Moldova, it has also gained the freedom to choose business partners, as well as those of foreign trade. Although it has been 30 years since independence in the country, the mentality persists that the country depends on the Russian Federation and the exports made in this country. The author intends to present the situation of exports of Moldovan goods in comparative analysis between the member countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and those of the European Union (EU) in order to be able to deduce which will be the weight of each in total exports of goods, thus concluding which are still the main export partners of the republic. Therefore, the purpose of the paper is the submission of the main partners of the Republic of Moldova in international trade in goods, their structure and the main categories of exported goods. Presentation of the statistics for foreign trade of the Republic of Moldova from January-August 2019-2021, and what is the trade balance of 2021 to August.

T. McDade, A. Georgiev, C. Kuzawa

Immune defenses provide resistance against infectious disease that is critical to survival. But immune defenses are costly, and limited resources allocated to immunity are not available for other physiological or developmental processes. We propose a framework for explaining variation in patterns of investment in two important subsystems of anti-pathogen defense: innate (non-specific) and acquired (specific) immunity. The developmental costs of acquired immunity are high, but the costs of maintenance and activation are relatively low. Innate immunity imposes lower upfront developmental costs, but higher operating costs. Innate defenses are mobilized quickly and are effective against novel pathogens. Acquired responses are less effective against novel exposures, but more effective against secondary exposures due to immunological memory. Based on their distinct profiles of costs and effectiveness, we propose that the balance of investment in innate versus acquired immunity is variable, and that this balance is optimized in response to local ecological conditions early in development. Nutritional abundance, high pathogen exposure and low signals of extrinsic mortality risk during sensitive periods of immune development should all favor relatively higher levels of investment in acquired immunity. Undernutrition, low pathogen exposure, and high mortality risk should favor innate immune defenses. The hypothesis provides a framework for organizing prior empirical research on the impact of developmental environments on innate and acquired immunity, and suggests promising directions for future research in human ecological immunology.

F. Casalini, Javier Lopez-Gonzalez

The ubiquitous exchange of data across borders has given rise to a range of concerns by governments and citizens about some of the effects of so much information being collected and used, often without the knowledge of data subjects. This has led countries to condition or prohibit the transfer of data abroad, affecting trade in the process. This paper develops an indicative taxonomy of domestic approaches to cross-border data flow regulation and local storage requirements; it then surveys international instruments that address the question of international data transfers. The paper then examines the issues that data flow restrictions might raise for consumers and businesses. Against this backdrop, the paper highlights the challenge of finding balance between ensuring that important objectives, such as consumer privacy and security, are met while maintaining the benefits from free flows of data, including the benefits from increased and more inclusive digital trade.

Elena Cefis, Orietta Marsili, Damiana Rigamonti

The existence of an inverted U‐shaped effect of the relatedness between acquirer and acquired firm on the innovative performance subsequent to an acquisition is normally regarded as indicative of the existence of a trade‐off between exploration and exploitation in external innovation search. We argue that acquirers endowed with heterogeneous learning capabilities can alter the shape of the trade‐off to their favour. In particular, we focus on a notion of industry relatedness that captures the coherence between the domains of operation of the acquirer and the acquired firm. Using a longitudinal dataset of 1,736 domestic acquisitions in the Netherlands, we show that the heterogeneous learning capabilities of the acquirers alter the shape of the inverted‐U relationship, according to first‐ and second‐order moderating effects. Our results confirm that learning capabilities by internal R&D and by acquisition experience both improve what acquirers can achieve in innovative performance when industry relatedness is at the point of balance between exploration and exploitation. In contrast, they have opposite implications on the potential losses in innovative performance when industry relatedness is outside the point of balance: internal R&D increases the tolerance of the trade‐off, smoothing out potential innovation losses, whereas acquisition experience reduces it.

S. Alexander

Saiful Alim Rosyadi, Tri Widodo