Hasil untuk "Other Finnic languages and dialects"

Maria Vjatšina

Albert Razin’s protest self-immolation in Russophone media coverage On 10 September 2019, Albert Razin, an Udmurt humanities scholar and activist, set himself on fire in protest against the Russification of educational policies. Russian federal media and experts framed his act in highly peculiar ways. First, Razin’s actions were extensively medicalized, with fabricated claims about his age, private life, and alleged physical and mental health conditions. Second, public commentators invoked the so-called custom of tipshar, a purported tradition of ritual suicide, to explain his actions. According to this narrative, drawn from the colonial discourse, ethnically non-Russian peoples of the Volga-Ural region are said to be predisposed to suicide as a means of inducing guilt in their adversaries. This article seeks to unpack the colonial undertones inherent in the ritual suicide narrative, which, rooted in imperial ethnography, is utilized by both pro-Kremlin and ostensibly independent Russophone media to deny the significance of Razin’s act of resistance. Through discourse analysis, this paper reveals the mechanisms of epistemic violence exercised over colonized Others. Specifically, it examines how the media’s portrayal reduced Razin’s political agency to a “traditional ritual” of a Neopagan, thereby undermining his act of resistance. By applying the concept of epistemic injustice, the study exposes the persistent colonial tropes employed by various public actors when discussing Indigenous peoples – tropes that ultimately prevent them from speaking for themselves.

Sercan Karakaş

This paper presents new resources and baselines for Dependency Parsing in Pomak, an endangered Eastern South Slavic language with substantial dialectal variation and no widely adopted standard. We focus on the variety spoken in Turkey (Uzunköprü) and ask how well a dependency parser trained on the existing Pomak Universal Dependencies treebank, which was built primarily from the variety that is spoken in Greece, transfers across dialects. We run two experimental phases. First, we train a parser on the Greek-variety UD data and evaluate zero-shot transfer to Turkish-variety Pomak, quantifying the impact of phonological and morphosyntactic differences. Second, we introduce a new manually annotated Turkish-variety Pomak corpus of 650 sentences and show that, despite its small size, targeted fine-tuning substantially improves accuracy; performance is further boosted by cross-variety transfer learning that combines the two dialects.

Ali Mekky, Mohamed El Zeftawy, Lara Hassan et al.

Being modeled as a single-label classification task for a long time, recent work has argued that Arabic Dialect Identification (ADI) should be framed as a multi-label classification task. However, ADI remains constrained by the availability of single-label datasets, with no large-scale multi-label resources available for training. By analyzing models trained on single-label ADI data, we show that the main difficulty in repurposing such datasets for Multi-Label Arabic Dialect Identification (MLADI) lies in the selection of negative samples, as many sentences treated as negative could be acceptable in multiple dialects. To address these issues, we construct a multi-label dataset by generating automatic multi-label annotations using GPT-4o and binary dialect acceptability classifiers, with aggregation guided by the Arabic Level of Dialectness (ALDi). Afterward, we train a BERT-based multi-label classifier using curriculum learning strategies aligned with dialectal complexity and label cardinality. On the MLADI leaderboard, our best-performing LAHJATBERT model achieves a macro F1 of 0.69, compared to 0.55 for the strongest previously reported system. Code and data are available at https://mohamedalaa9.github.io/lahjatbert/.

Tarun Sharma, Manikandan Ravikiran, Sourava Kumar Behera et al.

Recent NLP advances focus primarily on standardized languages, leaving most low-resource dialects under-served especially in Indian scenarios. In India, the issue is particularly important: despite Hindi being the third most spoken language globally (over 600 million speakers), its numerous dialects remain underrepresented. The situation is similar for Odia, which has around 45 million speakers. While some datasets exist which contain standard Hindi and Odia languages, their regional dialects have almost no web presence. We introduce INDIC-DIALECT, a human-curated parallel corpus of 13k sentence pairs spanning 11 dialects and 2 languages: Hindi and Odia. Using this corpus, we construct a multi-task benchmark with three tasks: dialect classification, multiple-choice question (MCQ) answering, and machine translation (MT). Our experiments show that LLMs like GPT-4o and Gemini 2.5 perform poorly on the classification task. While fine-tuned transformer based models pretrained on Indian languages substantially improve performance e.g., improving F1 from 19.6\% to 89.8\% on dialect classification. For dialect to language translation, we find that hybrid AI model achieves highest BLEU score of 61.32 compared to the baseline score of 23.36. Interestingly, due to complexity in generating dialect sentences, we observe that for language to dialect translation the ``rule-based followed by AI" approach achieves best BLEU score of 48.44 compared to the baseline score of 27.59. INDIC-DIALECT thus is a new benchmark for dialect-aware Indic NLP, and we plan to release it as open source to support further work on low-resource Indian dialects.

Janek Vaab

One of the most striking features of South Estonian among other Finnic languages is the occurrence of the glottal stop /ʔ/ as a phoneme, which in modern Võro and Lutsi orthographies is represented by the letter q. While the other grammatical and lexical functions of /ʔ/ are shared amongst the South Estonian varieties, the distribution of the glottal stop in the lative forms varies across dialects, caused by the conservative nature of Lutsi and Kraasna, and the innovations in the western subdialects of Võro. This article examines the occurrence of the glottal stop /ʔ/ at the end of the lative forms manoq ~ mano ’towards’ and kuuq ~ kodoq ~ kodo’(towards) home’, adverbialised illative and allative forms mahaq ~ maaha ’downwards’, pääleq ~ pääle ’onto’, and at the end of illative forms in Leivu South Estonian and the Hargla subdialect of Võro. This study combines qualitative historical analysis with synchronous quantitative analysis.

Māra Grudule

The written and oral culture of the Baltic indigenous peoples underwent gradual changes in the late 18th and 19th centuries. According to Wolfgang Welsch, vision is linked with knowledge and science, while hearing relates to faith and religion (Welsch 1996: 248) – this distinction shaped the interaction between oral and written culture. Among Baltic peasants, oral culture remained dominant until the mid-19th century, with the German clergy continuing to control the information space despite ongoing social change. During the Enlightenment, secular Latvian literature began to emerge. Gotthard Friedrich Stender (1714–1796), a German pastor from Kurzeme, laid the foundation for Latvian secular prose, poetry, and popular science literature. However, his songs, the so-called ziņģes, proved more influential than his prose. The songs combine entertainment with moral instruction on drinking, social harmony, and education. Around the turn of the 19th century, major transformations occurred: the territory of present-day Latvia was incorporated into the Russian Empire, Napoleon’s campaigns threatened the region, serfdom was abolished, and a Latvian school network was created. The public demanded information, which was shared through church sermons and, from the 1820s onward, through Latvian newspapers. Supported by Baltic German pastors, the first generation of Latvian intellectuals emerged. By the 1830s, they actively sought to merge oral and written traditions, adapting elements of the Baltic Germans’ peasant Enlightenment project for the purposes of the Latvian national awakening. This paper examines how three key events of the early 19th century – Napoleon’s campaigns and Latvian recruitment into the Russian army, the abolition of serfdom, and the rise of Latvian schools – were reflected in Latvian songs. It analyzes songs published in Latvian newspapers, in books, and on flyers, and it explores the differing perspectives of Baltic Germans and Latvians.

Lydia Risberg, Maria Tuulik, Margit Langemets et al.

Using corpus data to support lexicographers in identifying informal language This study examines how new corpus analysis tools can assist lexicographers in determining whether to assign a word an informal register label in a dictionary. Labelling words in dictionaries is necessary for language users seeking register information. Moreover, there have been calls for the upcoming Dictionary of Standard Estonian (DSE, 2025) to clearly distinguish standard language from other linguistic varieties. Informal language was chosen for analysis because it is more difficult to define than other marked registers. In DSE 2018, some words were labelled as informal based on language planning decisions rather than empirical analysis. As register labels should be data-driven and based on corpus evidence, a systematic review of these words is necessary for the revised edition. Our study investigates how corpus genre data can support lexicographers in deciding whether to add or remove the informal label. We found that corpus data provided useful insights in 82.1% of cases. Based on our experiment, we developed a guideline to assist in labelling word meanings as informal. Namely, if a word occurs in blogs and forums in 36% or more of its total corpus occurrences, it may be considered as tending towards informal usage. This guideline is not a rigid rule but a supportive tool, as additional factors should be considered based on the lexicographer’s linguistic expertise. Users value reliable linguistic information in dictionaries. Our proposed guideline helps lexicographers make more systematic decisions while maintaining expert judgment as the ultimate determinant.

Aivar Jürgenson

The Estonian villages of Salme, Sulevi, Estonia, and Linda were established along the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus in the 1880s. This was part of a broader migration movement that began in the mid-19th century, following the implementation of peasant laws and passport reforms that allowed peasants to leave their home provinces. Key push factors included demographic transition, overpopulation, and land shortages, while Russian imperial policies encouraged colonization in the southern and eastern regions of the empire. Estonians settled in Abkhazia after the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), a period during which much of the local population was exiled to the Ottoman Empire. The process of colonization involved the renaming of places, a practice undertaken both by central government officials and the settlers themselves. This article examines how Estonians named their new settlements and the ideological considerations that shaped these naming practices. The colonists drew inspiration from several sources, including place names from their homeland (such as the village name Estonia and farm names), features of the local environment, and figures from Estonian pseudomythology (e.g., Salme, Sulevi, Linda), which was highly popular during Estonia’s national awakening movement at the time. The microtoponymy created by Estonians reflected practical needs to designate key locations for daily life, such as mountains, fields, and forests. In general, the settlers disregarded the preexisting toponymy of the land, especially in the villages of Salme and Sulevi in northwestern Abkhazia, where the indigenous population had been forcibly removed as early as the 1860s – two decades before the arrival of Estonian migrants. As a result, the names given by Estonians also reflect the cultural rupture of the colonial era.

Taive Särg, Janika Oras

Variations of runosong in contemporary Estonia: Continuing a code of singing This article provides an overview of the contemporary, largely revitalized, and multi-layered runosong tradition within the context of its historical development, showing how the ancient Finnic song heritage – nearly extinct by the end of the 19th century – began to revive in the second half of the 20th century through earlier documentation, surviving peripheral traditions, and the postmodern re-evaluation of folk music. The focus lies on the social aspects of the 21st-century runosong tradition – its functions, contexts, and social organization. Contemporary runosong performances can be grouped into: (1) tradition-related singing integrated into ritual or other functional contexts; (2) non-ritual participatory singing with alternating lead and responding chorus; (3) unarranged stage performances, often involving audience participation; and (4) arranged performances that merge runosong with other musical styles. These forms influence one another and often draw on shared song sources. Runosong singing represents an alternative to mainstream modern culture and therefore often serves as a vehicle of identity and expression for smaller communities and nations – particularly those centred on the preservation of their culture, language, and environment. As a participatory form of music-making, runosong offers opportunities for distinctive self-expression and aesthetic experience, for transformative or healing engagement, as accompaniment to rituals and movements, and as a means of broadening cultural horizons. As the expressive form and content of runosong have developed in close connection with various aspects of everyday life over a long period, the style has retained its ability to adapt to changing conditions. Thus, runosong can be understood as a code – a framework shaped by its performers and tradition-bearers, characterized by variable structural and semantic features and capable of conveying multiple layers of meaning. Its presence in both participatory and staged forms demonstrates the vitality and continued significance of singing traditions in contemporary Estonia.

Kaisa Häkkinen

The first Estonian book was printed 500 years ago; no copies of the book have survived. The history of publishing in Finnish dates to 1543, with Mikael Agricola’s Abc-book. Agricola went on to publish eight additional works. This development was driven by the Lutheran Reformation on both sides of the Gulf of Finland. This article discusses the reasons why the paths of development diverged so markedly between the sister languages Finnish and Estonian. Finland was part of Sweden, but remained geographically distinct. A Swedish-speaking population lived along the coast, but these were ordinary peasants like their Finnish neighbours rather than a social upper class. Estonia, in contrast, had a German-speaking minority that was permanently present throughout the country as a dominant force. The clergy was also German-speaking. Finland formed a single diocese in the Church of Sweden. From the early 14th century onward, most bishops of Turku were born in Finland and spoke Finnish as their mother tongue. Local parish communities likely preferred priests with whom they could communicate in their own language. Swedish was not described as an official or socially superior language by Sebastian Münster in his Cosmographia (1544) Although scholars writing in Finnish knew the language, the literary register was different from everyday speech. Almost all texts were word for word translations from other languages, such as Latin, German, or Swedish. In a sense, the old literary Finnish was colonized from within by Finns themselves: Sweden had not yet had time to develop a strong national identity or sense of superiority, often combined with linguistic colonialism. Swedish-speaking administrators did thus not interfere with how Finns used their own language, but rather encouraged Finns to use pure Finnish. In the 19th century, in the spirit of national awakening, the language was thoroughly reformed in terms of both vocabulary and grammar. When Finland declared independence in 1917, the state of the language was strong and stable. Today, however, the situation is shifting once again, as English is exerting more and more influence on everyday language use. It appears that Finns are once more adopting a foreign model at the expense of their own language.

Sven Vabar

The any-spaces-whatever of Mehis Heinsaar: A longing for the field of authentic feeling and its critical potential The works of Mehis Heinsaar have seldom been examined through the philosophical or theoretical frameworks prevalent in Western humanities and social sciences. One notable exception is the philosophy of Gilles Deleuze, for whom Heinsaar seems to have a particular affinity: Deleuze’s ideas have been repeatedly employed in interpreting Heinsaar’s works, and the author himself has expressed interest in them. However, previous engagements with Deleuze’s philosophy have primarily drawn on the concepts of desiring-machines and rhizomes, as introduced in Kafka by Deleuze and Guattari – concepts that are well suited to analyzing only one aspect of Heinsaar’s writing. This article instead turns to the concept of the any-space-whatever, developed in Deleuze’s books Cinema 1 and Cinema 2, to extend the analysis of Heinsaar’s work beyond the point at which the desiring-machines described in Kafka break down and the individual’s sensorimotor schema begins to disintegrate. It emerges that any-spaces-whatever are strikingly prevalent in Heinsaar’s writing; indeed, one could argue that a significant portion of his literary output is oriented towards discovering and creating such spaces.

Reet Hiiemäe

The usefulness of traditional environmental folklore in addressing sustainability issues in modern contexts requires a more nuanced analysis. Despite the technologized and secularized surface of modern society, its values (including environmental ethics and concepts of sustainable resource use) are based on traditional worldviews. This article uses qualitative content and context analysis to look at key concepts and motifs in Estonian environmental folklore based on the corpus of Estonian lake folklore. It examines the following questions: How can we better integrate traditional knowledge about the causes of environmental problems, methods of prevention and mitigation into modern environmental debates? Can Estonian environmental folklore, which is mostly related to specific local ecosystems and the practices of people living in these ecosystems, serve as a guide for mitigating global environmental challenges? To what extent can traditional rituals of adaptation to environmental crises inspire collective constructive behaviour today? What lessons can we draw from folklore to improve green communication in the context of today’s environmental risks and uncertainties (e.g., avoiding moral panics and polarization)? The author concludes that a greater awareness of vernacular psychological, sensory, emotional, and narrative aspects of environmental behaviour is essential for understanding and predicting public responses.

Fred Puss

The emergence of Estonian family names (in Estonian: perekonnanimi) is typically dated to the 19th century. However, approximately one-fourth of these names have older onomastic roots. The first comprehensive lists of Estonian peasants date back to the 16th century. This study examines eight regions of Estonia, encompassing 765 peasants. Of these, 662 (87%) were recorded with a binominal naming structure (byname + given name), which suggests that by the 1560s, Estonian peasants had adopted a binominal personal naming system. One list from the 1540s recorded 63% of peasants with a byname, indicating that the development of bynames was likely complete by the mid-16th century. Among the peasants with bynames, four regions exhibited patronymic bynames (with the suffixes –son or –poeg ‘son’) in at least one-third of cases. In the other four regions, patronymic bynames were rare, yet no clear geographical pattern appears to explain this variation. Comparative analysis with later records from the same areas reveals that the stock of bynames sometimes changed over time, with patronymic bynames replacing those of other origins. This suggests that both bynames and naming practices were fluid and subject to change. Of the 662 peasants with bynames, 3.8% had bynames that later evolved into legal family names during the general bestowal of family names in the 1820s–1830s. Some of these family names appear to have originated from migrated bynames (appearing in a neighbouring village in the 16th century) or from rare given names. Consequently, approximately 1,500 family names (representing about 2% of the total) likely trace their origins back to the 16th century. If research confirms that the same family carried a name before the 1820s, it can be regarded as a family name rather than merely a byname.

Sairam Vaidya, Marcel Böhme, Loris D'Antoni

Modern extensible compiler frameworks-such as MLIR-enable rapid creation of domain-specific language dialects. This flexibility, however, makes correctness harder to ensure as the same extensibility that accelerates development also complicates maintaining the testing infrastructure. Extensible languages require automated test generation that is both dialect-agnostic (works across dialects without manual adaptation) and dialect-effective (targets dialect-specific features to find bugs). Existing approaches typically sacrifice one of these goals by either requiring manually constructed seed corpora for each dialect, or by failing to be effective. We present a dialect-agnostic and dialect-effective grammar-based and coverage-guided fuzzing approach for extensible compilers that combines two key insights from existing work: (i) the grammars of dialects, which already encode the structural and type constraints, can often be extracted automatically from the dialect specification; and (ii) these grammars can be used in combination with pre-trained large language models to automatically generate representative and diverse seed inputs from the full dialect space without requiring any manual input or training data. These seeds can then be used to bootstrap coverage-guided fuzzers. We built this approach into a tool, Germinator. When evaluated on six MLIR projects spanning 91 dialects, Germinator generated seeds improve line coverage by 10-120% over grammar-based baselines. We compare against grammar-based baselines because they are the only class of existing automatic seed generators that can be applied uniformly across MLIR's heterogeneous dialect ecosystem. Germinator discovers 88 previously unknown bugs (40 confirmed), including 23 in dialects with no prior automated test generators, demonstrating effective and controllable testing of low-resource dialects at scale.

Niyati Bafna, Emily Chang, Nathaniel R. Robinson et al.

Most of the world's languages and dialects are low-resource, and lack support in mainstream machine translation (MT) models. However, many of them have a closely-related high-resource language (HRL) neighbor, and differ in linguistically regular ways from it. This underscores the importance of model robustness to dialectal variation and cross-lingual generalization to the HRL dialect continuum. We present DialUp, consisting of a training-time technique for adapting a pretrained model to dialectal data (M->D), and an inference-time intervention adapting dialectal data to the model expertise (D->M). M->D induces model robustness to potentially unseen and unknown dialects by exposure to synthetic data exemplifying linguistic mechanisms of dialectal variation, whereas D->M treats dialectal divergence for known target dialects. These methods show considerable performance gains for several dialects from four language families, and modest gains for two other language families. We also conduct feature and error analyses, which show that language varieties with low baseline MT performance are more likely to benefit from these approaches.

Salmane Chafik, Saad Ezzini, Ismail Berrada

The task of converting natural language questions (NLQs) into executable SQL queries, known as text-to-SQL, has gained significant interest in recent years, as it enables non-technical users to interact with relational databases. Many benchmarks, such as SPIDER and WikiSQL, have contributed to the development of new models and the evaluation of their performance. In addition, other datasets, like SEDE and BIRD, have introduced more challenges and complexities to better map real-world scenarios. However, these datasets primarily focus on high-resource languages such as English and Chinese. In this work, we introduce Dialect2SQL, the first large-scale, cross-domain text-to-SQL dataset in an Arabic dialect. It consists of 9,428 NLQ-SQL pairs across 69 databases in various domains. Along with SQL-related challenges such as long schemas, dirty values, and complex queries, our dataset also incorporates the complexities of the Moroccan dialect, which is known for its diverse source languages, numerous borrowed words, and unique expressions. This demonstrates that our dataset will be a valuable contribution to both the text-to-SQL community and the development of resources for low-resource languages.

Oleg V. Smirnov

This is the second part of the paper published in the opening issue of the journal in 2025, it examines the phonetic and word-formation features of the most reliable linguistic data from the extinct Finno-Ugric varieties once spoken in the Historical Meryan Lands (HML), together with their closest parallels in the Volga-Finnic languages. A historical-phonetic and word-formation analysis of the material supports the earlier conclusion that the linguistic landscape of the HML prior to Russian settlement did not consist of a single language, but of several Finno‑Ugric dialects or languages. The lexical, phonetic and word-formation features observed correspond broadly to those found across the Volga-Finnic branch (Finnic, Mordvin, Mari, and to a lesser extent Saami). Distinct isoglosses can be identified and contrasted, and they represent not merely dialectal but, in many cases, linguistic divisions within the Volga-Finnic continuum. At the same time, these isoglosses intersect in different ways, indicating a linguistic situation far more complex than the recently proposed tripartite division into “Rostov”, “Kostroma” and “Murom” Meryan dialects. The material analysed demonstrates that the hypothesised “language of the Merya and Muroma” cannot be genetically aligned with any of the known Volga‑Finnic languages. The most plausible scenario is that the substrate Volga-Finnic languages of the HML represent independent offshoots of a broader Proto-Volga-Finnic community. Some of these varieties were in close contact with Finnic and Mordvin languages, while others developed affinities with Proto-Mari or Proto-Saami. The article further suggests that the ethnonym *märə may have been used in its original form by the indigenous Volga-Finnic population during the period of the Gorodets culture (second half of the first millennium AD ), in a manner comparable (albeit only typologically) to the emergence of the ethnonym *rus’ among the Eastern Slavs. The phonetic features reconstructed for the Volga-Finnic varieties of the HML are consistent with the derivation of the ethnonyms Merya, Mari and Muroma from this original märə form.

Katarzyna Wojan

The article presents the most important identity issues concerning a small, sociolinguistically diverse, geopolitically and culturally divided Balto-Finnic nation – Karelians. The author describes the Karelian ethnic group, emphasizing its inhomogeneity. The paper lists and describes the ethnolects of Karelian spoken both in Russian Karelia and Finland. It points out, on the one hand, the ethnolectal differences among them and, on the other hand, their clear relationship with various Finnish dialects and vernaculars. The Karelian languages are treated as an ethnolect continuum. The article also contains a brief description of Karelian grammar, showing its Finno-Ugric characteristics. Eventually, the paper raises the issue of the rebirth of the Karelian national identity. It stresses the Karelian heritage in the culture of Finns, the development of the Karelian languages, as well as the initiated work on creating their literary variants. Moreover, the text presents Russia’s planned linguistic and cultural policy in the Karelian Republic, still unfavorable to the ethnos, against a historical background.

Eda Kalmre

This article explores scary stories about evil clowns and men abducting children in white vans, which are known internationally and have recently spread among Estonian children and young people. In some cases, these narratives have transcended legend, prompting several criminal investigations in Estonia in recent years regarding alleged crimes committed by these nefarious characters. Communication among children, teenagers and young adults occurs both online and offline, i.e., by word of mouth. These age groups also engage in ostensive practices, where several forms of ostension can occur simultaneously. It is often quite challenging to discern between a mere prank, a little lie, a spontaneous experience of fear, or immersion in the story. In the cases from Harku parish, Põlva, and Viljandi, we observe how the playful social dynamics and belief systems typical of children’s and youth culture enter the public sphere through social media, transforming a criminal legend into a real criminal case. In the public sphere, the children’s stories create a different sense of danger (moral panic) and acquire a different meaning by portraying the surrounding world as dangerous and criminal. This change of context imbues the incident or legend with broader social significance and critique. The internet has intensified the seriousness of these evil character stories, providing a rich digital content that mixes various genres and activities, making them more immediate and impactful than the horror stories of the pre-internet era.

Igor Kotjuh

This article explores the use of the Estonian language in the works of poet Igor Severyanin (Igor Vasilyevich Lotaryov, 4 May [16 May] 1887, St. Petersburg – 20 December 1941, Tallinn). The opening section provides background: the birth of the Republic of Estonia and the poet’s permanent relocation to Estonia at the age of 30 occurred almost simultaneously. Memoirs from the time reveal a myth portraying Severyanin as lacking a talent for languages, claiming he never mastered Estonian. This article challenges that myth and argues the opposite. Severyanin’s efforts were directed at deeply rooting himself in Estonia: acquiring Estonian citizenship, maintaining close relationships with Estonian writers, collaborating with the Estonian Cultural Endowment, marrying an Estonian, befriending the Henrik Visnapuu family, translating Estonian literature into Russian, and incorporating Estonian words into his Russian-language works. The article examines Severyanin’s linguistic experiments in Estonian through the lens of Olivia García’s concept of translanguaging, moving towards an analysis of the poet’s identity. The study draws on Mikhail Bakhtin’s theory of “polyphony”, Homi K. Bhabha’s concept of the “Third Space”, and Wolfgang Welsch’s idea of “transculturality”. The aim is to demonstrate the existence of a hybrid identity through Severyanin’s translanguaging (and emerging bilingualism).