Hasil untuk "Islamic law"

Ezieddin Elmahjub, Junaid Qadir, Abdullah Mushtaq et al.

As millions of Muslims turn to LLMs like GPT, Claude, and DeepSeek for religious guidance, a critical question arises: Can these AI systems reliably reason about Islamic law? We introduce IslamicLegalBench, the first benchmark evaluating LLMs across seven schools of Islamic jurisprudence, with 718 instances covering 13 tasks of varying complexity. Evaluation of nine state-of-the-art models reveals major limitations: the best model achieves only 68% correctness with 21% hallucination, while several models fall below 35% correctness and exceed 55% hallucination. Few-shot prompting provides minimal gains, improving only 2 of 9 models by >1%. Moderate-complexity tasks requiring exact knowledge show the highest errors, whereas high-complexity tasks display apparent competence through semantic reasoning. False premise detection indicates risky sycophancy, with 6 of 9 models accepting misleading assumptions at rates above 40%. These results highlight that prompt-based methods cannot compensate for missing foundational knowledge. IslamicLegalBench offers the first systematic framework to evaluate Islamic legal reasoning in AI, revealing critical gaps in tools increasingly relied on for spiritual guidance.

Noam Kolt

The prospect of artificial superintelligence -- AI agents that can generally outperform humans in cognitive tasks and economically valuable activities -- will transform the legal order as we know it. Operating autonomously or under only limited human oversight, AI agents will assume a growing range of roles in the legal system. First, in making consequential decisions and taking real-world actions, AI agents will become de facto subjects of law. Second, to cooperate and compete with other actors (human or non-human), AI agents will harness conventional legal instruments and institutions such as contracts and courts, becoming consumers of law. Third, to the extent AI agents perform the functions of writing, interpreting, and administering law, they will become producers and enforcers of law. These developments, whenever they ultimately occur, will call into question fundamental assumptions in legal theory and doctrine, especially to the extent they ground the legitimacy of legal institutions in their human origins. Attempts to align AI agents with extant human law will also face new challenges as AI agents will not only be a primary target of law, but a core user of law and contributor to law. To contend with the advent of superintelligence, lawmakers -- new and old -- will need to be clear-eyed, recognizing both the opportunity to shape legal institutions as society braces for superintelligence and the reality that, in the longer run, this may be a joint human-AI endeavor.

Dalal Alrajeh, Vesna Nowack, Patrick Benjamin et al.

Investigating serious crimes is inherently complex and resource-constrained. Law enforcement agencies (LEAs) grapple with overwhelming volumes of offender and incident data, making effective suspect identification difficult. Although machine learning (ML)-enabled systems have been explored to support LEAs, several have failed in practice. This highlights the need to align system behavior with stakeholder goals early in development, motivating the use of Goal-Oriented Requirements Engineering (GORE). This paper reports our experience applying the GORE framework KAOS to designing an ML-enabled system for identifying suspects in online child sexual abuse. We describe how KAOS supported early requirements elaboration, including goal refinement, object modeling, agent assignment, and operationalization. A key finding is the central role of data elicitation: data requirements constrain refinement choices and candidate agents while influencing how goals are linked, operationalized, and satisfied. Conversely, goal elaboration and agent assignment shape data quality expectations and collection needs. Our experience highlights the iterative, bidirectional dependencies between goals, data, and ML performance. We contribute a reference model for integrating GORE with data-driven system development, and identify gaps in KAOS, particularly the need for explicit support for data elicitation and quality management. These insights inform future extensions of KAOS and, more broadly, the application of formal GORE methods to ML-enabled systems for high-stakes societal contexts.

Handrian Ginting Jonson, Afrida Afrida, Zulkifli Addina et al.

This study examines the 2024 flash flood in Pandai Sikek, West Sumatra, through the lens of disaster anthropology and social memory. Based on preliminary research and one week of ethnographic fieldwork, the research reveals that while extreme rainfall triggered the event, socio-ecological drivers such as post-COVID return migration, deforestation, and land-use change significantly amplified its impacts. The community’s vulnerability was heightened by the absence of social memory: no oral traditions, rituals, or institutional practices existed to anticipate or respond to such a disaster. The flood therefore collapsed long-standing narratives of safety associated with Mount Singgalang and forced the community to confront a new reality of risk. Findings show that the disaster produced both trauma and solidarity, as gotong royong, remittances from migrants, and local organizing supported immediate recovery. At the same time, new and contested memories of vulnerability began to emerge. Early mitigation efforts, including reforestation, canal reinforcement, and disaster awareness initiatives, indicate steps toward resilience, though challenges remain in institutionalizing these lessons. The study concludes that building resilience in Pandai Sikek requires not only ecological restoration but also the transformation of traumatic absence into enduring social memory.

Naqiyah, Nita Triana, Gamal Abdul Nasir Zakaria et al.

Polygamy regulations are designed to protect the interests of Muslim families; however, ironically, in some Muslim countries, these regulations have been associated with triggering domestic violence. This study aims to examine the legal politics of polygamy in Southeast Asian Muslim countries: Indonesia, Malaysia, and Brunei Darussalam using a legal pluralism approach alongside Qur'anic perspective. The methodology employed is qualitative with a descriptive-interpretative approach. The findings indicate that these three countries regulate polygamy through two reforms: intra-doctrinal reforms that accommodate religious and cultural norms and extra-doctrinal reforms encompassing legal frameworks, judicial systems, and institutional structures. Three main factors influence these legal policies: religious understanding, local traditions, and political and social dynamics. As ūlū al-amri (authoritative leaders), the governments of these countries are committed to regulating polygamy to benefit families and children by integrating Islamic values, local traditions, and colonial legal influences. These regulations align with the Qur'anic message that permits polygamy under certain conditions and strict requirements, aiming to achieve marital goals of tranquility (sakīnah), affection (mawaddah), and compassion (raḥmah). However, stricter supervision and substantive legal reforms are necessary to reinforce these requirements and impose sanctions on violators.

Mohammad Aghajani Asl, Behrooz Minaei Bidgoli

The advent of Large Language Models (LLMs) has revolutionized Natural Language Processing, yet their application in high-stakes, specialized domains like religious question answering is hindered by challenges like hallucination and unfaithfulness to authoritative sources. This issue is particularly critical for the Persian-speaking Muslim community, where accuracy and trustworthiness are paramount. Existing Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) systems, relying on simplistic single-pass pipelines, fall short on complex, multi-hop queries requiring multi-step reasoning and evidence aggregation. To address this gap, we introduce FARSIQA, a novel, end-to-end system for Faithful Advanced Question Answering in the Persian Islamic domain. FARSIQA is built upon our innovative FAIR-RAG architecture: a Faithful, Adaptive, Iterative Refinement framework for RAG. FAIR-RAG employs a dynamic, self-correcting process: it adaptively decomposes complex queries, assesses evidence sufficiency, and enters an iterative loop to generate sub-queries, progressively filling information gaps. Operating on a curated knowledge base of over one million authoritative Islamic documents, FARSIQA demonstrates superior performance. Rigorous evaluation on the challenging IslamicPCQA benchmark shows state-of-the-art performance: the system achieves a remarkable 97.0% in Negative Rejection - a 40-point improvement over baselines - and a high Answer Correctness score of 74.3%. Our work establishes a new standard for Persian Islamic QA and validates that our iterative, adaptive architecture is crucial for building faithful, reliable AI systems in sensitive domains.

Umar Siddiqui, Habiba Youssef, Adel Sabour et al.

With the widespread of software systems and applications that serve the Islamic knowledge domain, several concerns arise. Authenticity and accuracy of the databases that back up these systems are questionable. With the excitement that some software developers and amateur researchers may have, false statements and incorrect claims may be made around numerical signs or miracles in the Quran. Reproducibility of these claims may not be addressed by the people making such claims. Moreover, with the increase in the number of users, scalability and availability of these systems become a concern. In addition to all these concerns, extensibility is also another major issue. Properly designed systems can be extensible, reusable and built on top of one another, instead of each system being built from scratch every time a new framework is developed. In this paper, we introduce the QuranResearch.Org system and its vision for scalability, availability, reproducibility and extensibility to serve Islamic database systems.

Abdessalam Bouchekif, Samer Rashwani, Heba Sbahi et al.

This paper evaluates the knowledge and reasoning capabilities of Large Language Models in Islamic inheritance law, known as 'ilm al-mawarith. We assess the performance of seven LLMs using a benchmark of 1,000 multiple-choice questions covering diverse inheritance scenarios, designed to test models' ability to understand the inheritance context and compute the distribution of shares prescribed by Islamic jurisprudence. The results reveal a significant performance gap: o3 and Gemini 2.5 achieved accuracies above 90%, whereas ALLaM, Fanar, LLaMA, and Mistral scored below 50%. These disparities reflect important differences in reasoning ability and domain adaptation. We conduct a detailed error analysis to identify recurring failure patterns across models, including misunderstandings of inheritance scenarios, incorrect application of legal rules, and insufficient domain knowledge. Our findings highlight limitations in handling structured legal reasoning and suggest directions for improving performance in Islamic legal reasoning. Code: https://github.com/bouchekif/inheritance_evaluation

Avinash Agarwal, Manisha J. Nene

The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into telecommunications infrastructure introduces novel risks, such as algorithmic bias and unpredictable system behavior, that fall outside the scope of traditional cybersecurity and data protection frameworks. This paper introduces a precise definition and a detailed typology of telecommunications AI incidents, establishing them as a distinct category of risk that extends beyond conventional cybersecurity and data protection breaches. It argues for their recognition as a distinct regulatory concern. Using India as a case study for jurisdictions that lack a horizontal AI law, the paper analyzes the country's key digital regulations. The analysis reveals that India's existing legal instruments, including the Telecommunications Act, 2023, the CERT-In Rules, and the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023, focus on cybersecurity and data breaches, creating a significant regulatory gap for AI-specific operational incidents, such as performance degradation and algorithmic bias. The paper also examines structural barriers to disclosure and the limitations of existing AI incident repositories. Based on these findings, the paper proposes targeted policy recommendations centered on integrating AI incident reporting into India's existing telecom governance. Key proposals include mandating reporting for high-risk AI failures, designating an existing government body as a nodal agency to manage incident data, and developing standardized reporting frameworks. These recommendations aim to enhance regulatory clarity and strengthen long-term resilience, offering a pragmatic and replicable blueprint for other nations seeking to govern AI risks within their existing sectoral frameworks.

Abdullah Mushtaq, Rafay Naeem, Ezieddin Elmahjub et al.

Large language models are increasingly used for Islamic guidance, but risk misquoting texts, misapplying jurisprudence, or producing culturally inconsistent responses. We pilot an evaluation of GPT-4o, Ansari AI, and Fanar on prompts from authentic Islamic blogs. Our dual-agent framework uses a quantitative agent for citation verification and six-dimensional scoring (e.g., Structure, Islamic Consistency, Citations) and a qualitative agent for five-dimensional side-by-side comparison (e.g., Tone, Depth, Originality). GPT-4o scored highest in Islamic Accuracy (3.93) and Citation (3.38), Ansari AI followed (3.68, 3.32), and Fanar lagged (2.76, 1.82). Despite relatively strong performance, models still fall short in reliably producing accurate Islamic content and citations -- a paramount requirement in faith-sensitive writing. GPT-4o had the highest mean quantitative score (3.90/5), while Ansari AI led qualitative pairwise wins (116/200). Fanar, though trailing, introduces innovations for Islamic and Arabic contexts. This study underscores the need for community-driven benchmarks centering Muslim perspectives, offering an early step toward more reliable AI in Islamic knowledge and other high-stakes domains such as medicine, law, and journalism.

Vera Pavlova

This study examines the use of Natural Language Processing (NLP) technology within the Islamic domain, focusing on developing an Islamic neural retrieval model. By leveraging the robust XLM-R model, the research employs a language reduction technique to create a lightweight bilingual large language model (LLM). Our approach for domain adaptation addresses the unique challenges faced in the Islamic domain, where substantial in-domain corpora exist only in Arabic while limited in other languages, including English. The work utilizes a multi-stage training process for retrieval models, incorporating large retrieval datasets, such as MS MARCO, and smaller, in-domain datasets to improve retrieval performance. Additionally, we have curated an in-domain retrieval dataset in English by employing data augmentation techniques and involving a reliable Islamic source. This approach enhances the domain-specific dataset for retrieval, leading to further performance gains. The findings suggest that combining domain adaptation and a multi-stage training method for the bilingual Islamic neural retrieval model enables it to outperform monolingual models on downstream retrieval tasks.

Hans-Bernd Schaefer, Rok Spruk

We examine the contribution of Islamic legal institutions to the comparative economic decline of the Middle East behind Latin Europe, which can be observed since the late Middle Ages. To this end, we explore whether the sacralization of Islamic law and its focus on the Sharia as supreme, sacred and unchangeable legal text, which reached its culmination in the 13th century had an impact on economic development. We use the population size of 145 cities in Islamic countries and 648 European cities for the period 800-1800 as proxies for the level of economic development, and construct novel estimates of the number of law schools (i.e. madaris) and estimate their contribution to the pre-industrial economic development. Our triple-differences estimates show that a higher density of madrasas before the sacralization of Islamic law predicts a more vibrant urban economy characterized by higher urban growth. After the consolidation of the sharia sacralization of law in the 13th century, greater density of law schools is associated with stagnating population size. We show that the economic decline of the Middle East can be partly explained by the absence of legal innovations or substitutes of them, which paved the way for the economic rise of Latin Europe, where ground-breaking legal reforms introduced a series of legal innovations conducive for economic growth. We find that the number of learned lawyers trained in universities with law schools is highly and positively correlated with the western European city population. Our counterfactual estimates show that almost all Islamic cities under consideration would have had much larger size by the year 1700 if legal innovations comparable to those in Western Europe were introduced. By making use of a series of synthetic control and difference-in-differences estimators our findings are robust against a large number of model specification checks.

حسین پرکان

خوانشِ مسائل فرهنگی و نیز نوع راهکارها، وابسته به پیش‎فرض‎ها و پیش‎دانسته‎های سیاستگذار فرهنگی است. توجه‌نکردن به تفاوت‎ها در پیش‎فرض‎ها و زمینه‎های فرهنگی و اجتماعی، ناکارآمدی سیاست‎ها را به همراه دارد (ماتاراسو و لندری، 1999). زمانی که تشتّت و سردرگمی در امر سیاستگذاری وجود دارد، یعنی بنیادهای نظری به خوبی واکاوی نشده و حتی ممکن است اساساً پاسخگوی شرایط جدید نباشند. لذا در اینکه چگونه به این بنیادها پرداخته شود و چه روش‎هایی برای انتخاب مدّنظر قرار گیرد، هرمنوتیک فلسفی گادامر به‌عنوان یکی از دستاوردهای مهم و مطرحِ نظری، شامل دلالت‎هایی است که با بهره‎برداری از آن، امر سیاستگذاری فرهنگی را تدقیق و ارتقاء کیفی می‎بخشد. در این خصوص، با بهره‎گیری از روش تحلیل مضمون، ابتدا مفاهیم کلیدی هرمنوتیک فلسفی بررسی و استخراج شده و سپس ضمن توجه به برخی از گام‎های اصلی فرایند سیاستگذاری، ماتریسی تشکیل شده و هر «گام» در یک ستون و هر «مفهوم کلیدی» در یک سطر ماتریس قرار گرفته است. در نهایت از مهم‎ترین دلالت‎های هرمنوتیک فلسفی گادامر در سیاستگذاری فرهنگی می‎توان به مفهوم «موقعیت‎سازهای هرمنوتیکی» اشاره کرد که مبیّن پیش‎فرض‎ها، پیش‎تصورات و انتخاب‎های آگاهانه و ناآگاهانه است که در مراحل قبل‎تر از انتخاب‎های سیاستی، فهم‎ها را شکل داده است.

Abdulrazzaq Balaqrouz

افتتاحية العدد .. نحو إعادة الوصل بين علوم الوحي والدراسات الإنسانية

Supriyanto Supriyanto

This study aims to reveal the interaction of local Javanese culture with an Islamic philosophical approach originating from the Cowongan tradition performed by shamans accompanied by dances with holy ladies and reciting mantras. This tradition is a prayer asking the gods to send down rain. This article emphasised that the Cowongan tradition places mystical power as the dominant element in life, which is embodied in symbols. The study of mysticism is closer to the study of Sufism which presents it as Islamic mysticism with the color of syncretism of religious teachings with local cultural practices embodied by mystical-occult practices as the Penginyongan culture. Contribution: This research contributed to the fact that traditions that are good and acceptable to society can become the law as part of the Urf, which need to be maintained as long as they do not conflict with Sharia.

ابراهیم مرادی, احمد فلاحی, شهرام محمدی

افسادفی‌الارض از مفاهیم محل بحث و اختلاف نظر است و تبیین آن در فضای مجازی از مسائل بسیار محسوب می‌شود. هدف مقاله حاضر بررسی مفهوم و مصادیق افسادفی‌الارض در فقه و حقوق کیفری است. مقاله پیش‌رو توصیفی تحلیلی بوده و با استفاده از روش کتابخانه‌ای به بررسی سؤال مورد اشاره پرداخته شده است. یافته‌ها بر این امر دلالت دارد که اساساً در فقه در سرفصل مشخصی به افسادفی‌الارض پرداخته نشده و عمدتاً در بحث درخصوص محاربه، به افسادفی‌الارض اشاره شده است. میان فقها در این زمینه اختلاف نظر وجود دارد: برخی آن را زیر لوای محاربه و برخی دیگر جرمی مستقل قلمداد کرده‌اند. در قانون مجازات اسلامی مصوب ۱۳۹۲ رویکرد دوم پذیرفته شده است. در فقه امامیه، مواردی چون آتش زدن خانه دیگری، قتل اهل ذمه و کفن دزدی به‌عنوان مصادیق افسادفی‌الارض شناخته شده است. در مذاهب اهل سنت، بسیار کمتر به افسادفی‌الارض پرداخته شده و حاکم اسلامی را در تعیین مصادیق آن صاحب اختیار می‌دانند. ترویج فساد در اجتماع می‌تواند راحت‌تر از قبل از طریق فضای گسترده مجازی صورت پذیرد. پس می‌توان قائل به تحقق افسادفی‌الارض در فضای مجازی بود.

Rebecca Lin, Craig S. Kaplan

Islamic geometric patterns are a rich and venerable ornamental tradition. Many classic designs feature periodic arrangements of rosettes: star shapes surrounded by rings of hexagonal petals. We present a new technique for generating 'freeform' compositions of rosettes: finite designs that freely mix rosettes of unusual sizes while retaining the aesthetics of traditional patterns. We use a circle packing as a scaffolding for developing a patch of polygons and fill each polygon with a motif based on established constructions from Islamic art.

İrfan Sevinç

Aidiyet, bireyin kendisini bir konu, yer ve toplulukla ilişkilendirerek bir grubun parçası olarak algılaması durumu olarak tanımlanabilir. Kurumsal aidiyet ise bireyin herhangi bir kuruma dair hissettiği bütünleşme ve özdeşleşme boyutu olup, çalışanın, kendini kurumu ile özdeşleştirmesi ve kurumsal faaliyetlere aktif katılım isteği göstermesi olarak belirtilebilir. Günümüzde yaşanan hızlı değişim ve gelişim, maddi alanda olduğu gibi manevi alanda da etkili olmaktadır. Bu nedenle din görevlilerinin kurumsal aidiyet bilincine sahip olması son derece önemlidir. Bu bağlamda çalışmanın amacı; “Din görevlilerinin kurumsal aidiyet düzeyleri ile iş performansları arasında istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bir ilişki bulunup bulunmadığının” test edilmesidir. Nicel araştırma yöntemine göre yürütülen araştırmada tarama modeli uygulanmıştır. Araştırmanın evrenini, Çorum İl müftülüğüne bağlı toplam 1494 din hizmetleri sınıfı personeli; örneklemini ise bu kişiler arasından seçilen 320 kişi oluşturmaktadır. Araştırmada veri toplama aracı olarak anket formu kullanılmıştır. Anket formunun bir bölümünde katılımcı din görevlilerinin demografik nitelikleri ve kişisel bilgilerini belirlemeye yönelik 6 soru bulunmaktadır. İkinci bölümünde Demir (2022) tarafından geliştirilen “Kurumsal Aidiyet Ölçeği” yer almaktadır. Ölçek yüksek derecede güvenilirlik değerine sahip olup, Cronbach Alpha değeri 0,93’ tür. Alt boyutlar olarak da Psikolojik Sahiplenme 0,93; Özdeşleşme 0,83 ve Algılanan İçsel Statü 0,86 ile yüksek derecede güvenlik değerlerine sahiptir. Ölçekte toplam 27 madde bulunmaktadır. Üçüncü bölümde ise “İş Performansı Ölçeği” yer almaktadır. Görev Performansı ve Bağlamsal Performans olmak üzere iki boyut ve 16 maddeden oluşan ölçekte yer alan 9 madde Goodman ve Syvantek tarafından görev performansını belirlemek üzere; diğer 7 madde ise Jawahar ve Carr tarafından geliştirilmiştir. Ölçeğin Türkçeye uyarlanması ile geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışmaları Bağcı (2014) tarafından yapılmıştır. Yüksek derecede güvenilirlik değerine sahip olan ölçeğin Cronbach Alpha katsayısı 0,90; Görev Performansı alt boyutu için 0,89; Bağlamsal Performans alt boyutu için 0,83’ tür. Veriler SPSS ortamında frekans analizlerine, homojenlik testine ve korelasyon analizine tabi tutularak değerlendirilmiştir. Katılımcıların kurumsal aidiyet boyutlarına ilişkin bulgulara göre en yüksek ortalamaya sahip olan faktörün Özdeşleşme boyutu; İş performansı boyutlarında da en yüksek ortalamaya sahip olan faktörün Bağlamsal Performans olduğu görülmektedir. Korelasyon analizleri verilerine göre de kurumsal aidiyet boyutları ile iş performansı boyutları arasındaki korelasyon katsayılarının en yükseğinin 0,52 çıkması orta düzeyde bir ilişki olduğunu göstermektedir. Demografik faktörler (cinsiyet, yaş, medeni durum, öğrenim durumu, kıdem) olarak bakıldığında da aralarında anlamlı fark görülmeksizin bütün gruplarda kurumsal aidiyette en yüksek ortalamaya sahip faktör “özdeşleşme”; iş performansında ise “Bağlamsal Performans” olduğu görülmektedir. İstisna olarak medeni durum gruplarından boşanmış/dul grubu ile eğitim gruplarından lisansüstü mezunları grubunda iş performansının boyutları açısından en yüksek ortalamaya sahip olan faktörün Görev Performansı olduğu görülmektedir. Araştırmada ulaşılan sonuçlardan, katılımcıların kurumsal aidiyet boyutlarından olan “özdeşleşme”ye ilişkin bulgular Koç (2020) ve Uygur'un (2007) araştırma sonuçları ile örtüşmekte, Öztop’un (2014) sonuçları ile örtüşmemektedir. Araştırmada korelasyon analizi ile elde edilen kurumsal aidiyet düzeyi ile iş performansı arasındaki pozitif yönde doğrusal ilişki şeklindeki bulgular konuya ilişkin olarak yapılan diğer bazı çalışmalardan Arı ve Şahin (2016) ve Uludağ (2018) tarafından yapılan araştırmaların sonuçları ile de benzerlik içermektedir. Bu veriler ışığında; değişkenler arasında çok yüksek düzeyde bir ilişki olmasa da pozitif bir ilişkinin bulunmuş olmasına dayanılarak “kurumsal aidiyet düzeyi arttığında iş performansının da artacağını” söylemek mümkündür. Din görevlilerinin kurumsal aidiyet duygularını arttırabilmek için, kurumsal açıdan kurum kültürünün aidiyet duygusunu geliştirecek nitelikte kurgulanması bir öneri olarak sunulabilir.

Seyed Hossein Safaii, Mohammad Hadi Javaherkalam

In this article, the effects of the “Void" of the contract as the origin of debt upon assignment contract have been analyzed in view of the Article 733 civil code.  Does the assignment contract become void when a contract related to the origin of the debt becomes void, or does it remain valid and the resulting obligations must be fulfilled? Additionally, with the annulment (becoming void) of the sale contract which is the origin of the debt, to whom should be returned the price obtained by the assignee (the assignor or the third-party assignee), and the third-party assignee may indicate to the assignor or assignee to return the price he paid; and also, to whom should the customer refer for the price (the seller or assignee). Using the descriptive-analytical research method and extensive study of Islamic jurisprudence and the analysis of Article 733 of the civil code, the study concluded that the void of the contract as the origin of debt causes the void of the assignment contract, and the assignee is obligated to return all things obtained illegitimately to the third-party assignee and the third-party assignee can choose whether to refer to the assignor or assignee in returning the price. This ruling applies to not only sales contracts, but any debt that is created through civil contracts or non-contractual events and an assignment is issued, and then it turns out that there was no debt; to begin with, the above rulings will apply.

Ahmet Beken

Osmanlı dönemi medreseleri, gerek tedris edilen ilimler ve okutulan kitaplar, gerekse istihdam alanları açısından selefi Selçukluların devamı niteliğindedir. İcâzet/nâme alarak medrese eğitimini tamamlayan talebeler; din görevliliği alanında (müftülük, vaizlik, imamlık), müderrislik ve kadılık gibi mansıplarda istihdam edilmişlerdir. Dolayısıyla medreseler, uzun süre devletin adli, idari, mülki ve eğitimle ilgili kadro ihtiyacını karşılamıştır. Bununla birlikte özellikle Tanzimat Döneminden (1839-1878) sonra açılan yeni eğitim kurumları da sözü edilen alanlarda devletin kadro ihtiyacını karşılamaya başlamış ve hatta ilerleyen zamanlarda medreselerin istihdam alanını daraltmıştır. Ancak medreselerin durumu, müderrislerin hayatı, talebelerin imtihan ve istihdamları gibi konular çoğunlukla bilâd-ı selâse (İstanbul, Bursa ve Edirne) merkezli incelenmiş, bunların taşradaki durumlarıyla ilgili yeterince çalışma yapılmamıştır. Dolayısıyla bu çalışmada, Hatay/Dörtyol müderrisi İlyas Efendi (1873-1956) ve ona ait sicil dosyası özelinde taşradaki bir müderrisin öğrenim hayatı ve imtihan varakası üzerinden istihdamı konu edilmiştir. Çalışmada dokümanlara dayalı veri toplama ve içerik analizini esas alan nitel araştırma yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Bu bağlamda Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivinden ve zaman zaman Halep, Adana ve Ankara Vilayet Salnâmeleri ile Maârif Nezâreti Salnâmelerinden istifade edilmiştir. Hâçin’de (Saimbeyli) doğan ve ilk tahsilini doğduğu yerde alan İlyas Efendi, ilmî bir heyet tarafından ehliyet ve liyakatine hükmedilerek müderris olarak atanmıştır. Tanzimat Dönemiyle başlayan eğitimde Batı etkisi ve medrese dışında kurulan yeni eğitim kurumlarıyla eğitimde modernleşme, eğitim sisteminde olduğu gibi medrese mezunlarının istihdamında da birtakım değişmelere ve daralmalara neden olmuştur. Nitekim adli, idari, askeri vs. görevliler, yeni açılan eğitim kurumlarıyla karşılanırken medresenin istihdam alanı çoğunlukla din hizmetlerini ifa edecek görevlilerin ve müderris gibi medrese elemanının yetiştirilmesine hasredilmiştir. İlyas Efendi’nin tahsil hayatı, icâzet metni ve imtihan varakası -Tefsir ve Hadis hariç- öğrenim gördüğü ilimlerden imtihana tabi tutulduğu, Tefsir, Hadis ve Hadis Usulü gibi ilimlerle ilgili de doğrudan soruların yer almadığı görülmektedir. İncelediğimiz belgede İlyas Efendi’nin hangi alan(lar)da ders verdiğiyle ilgili net bilgi bulunmamakla birlikte icâzet ve imtihan varakasından hareketle öncelikle Fıkıh ve Kelâm gibi dinî ilimlerle Arap Dili ve Belagatine yönelik dersler verdiği ileri sürülebilir. Her ne kadar çerçevesi belli standart bir müfredattan bahsetmek zor olsa da İlyas Efendi’ye ait dosyadan hareketle taşra medreselerinde okutulan derslerin/kitapların Osmanlı medreselerinde hemen her dönemde okutulan metinlerle benzerlik gösterdiği, bu yönüyle büyük ölçüde Osmanlı merkez medrese kültürünü devam ettirdiği sonucuna varılabilir. Bunu, icâzet metninde yer alan ulemâ silsilesinden de görmek mümkündür. Bunun yanında Osmanlı Medreseleri ve bunlarla ilgili müfredat incelendiğinde -farklı derecelerde okunmak üzere- Mutavvel, (Molla) Câmî, Mülteka’l-Ebhur, Dürerü’l-Hükkâm, Şerh-i Akâid ve Îsâgûcî’nin ortak kitaplar olduğuna tesadüf edilmektedir. Okutulan eserler ve istihdamla ilgili uygulamalar göz önüne alındığında taşradaki medreseleri merkezdeki benzerlerinden ayırmanın mümkün olmayacağı sonucuna varılabilir.