Hasil untuk "Heat"

Andrea Luke

Ximin Cui, Qifeng Ruan, Xiaolu Zhuo et al.

All forms of energy follow the law of conservation of energy, by which they can be neither created nor destroyed. Light-to-heat conversion as a traditional yet constantly evolving means of converting light into thermal energy has been of enduring appeal to researchers and the public. With the continuous development of advanced nanotechnologies, a variety of photothermal nanomaterials have been endowed with excellent light harvesting and photothermal conversion capabilities for exploring fascinating and prospective applications. Herein we review the latest progresses on photothermal nanomaterials, with a focus on their underlying mechanisms as powerful light-to-heat converters. We present an extensive catalogue of nanostructured photothermal materials, including metallic/semiconductor structures, carbon materials, organic polymers, and two-dimensional materials. The proper material selection and rational structural design for improving the photothermal performance are then discussed. We also provide a representative overview of the latest techniques for probing photothermally generated heat at the nanoscale. We finally review the recent significant developments of photothermal applications and give a brief outlook on the current challenges and future directions of photothermal nanomaterials.

K. Ebi, A. Capon, P. Berry et al.

Hot ambient conditions and associated heat stress can increase mortality and morbidity, as well as increase adverse pregnancy outcomes and negatively affect mental health. High heat stress can also reduce physical work capacity and motor-cognitive performances, with consequences for productivity, and increase the risk of occupational health problems. Almost half of the global population and more than 1 billion workers are exposed to high heat episodes and about a third of all exposed workers have negative health effects. However, excess deaths and many heat-related health risks are preventable, with appropriate heat action plans involving behavioural strategies and biophysical solutions. Extreme heat events are becoming permanent features of summer seasons worldwide, causing many excess deaths. Heat-related morbidity and mortality are projected to increase further as climate change progresses, with greater risk associated with higher degrees of global warming. Particularly in tropical regions, increased warming might mean that physiological limits related to heat tolerance (survival) will be reached regularly and more often in coming decades. Climate change is interacting with other trends, such as population growth and ageing, urbanisation, and socioeconomic development, that can either exacerbate or ameliorate heat-related hazards. Urban temperatures are further enhanced by anthropogenic heat from vehicular transport and heat waste from buildings. Although there is some evidence of adaptation to increasing temperatures in high-income countries, projections of a hotter future suggest that without investment in research and risk management actions, heat-related morbidity and mortality are likely to increase.

R. Siegel, J. Howell, M. Pinar Mengüç

Introduction to Radiative Transfer Importance of Thermal Radiation in Engineering Thermal Energy Transfer Thermal Radiative Transfer Radiative Energy Exchange and Radiative Intensity Characteristics of Emission Radiative Energy Loss and Gain Along a Line-of-Sight Radiative Transfer Equation Radiative Transfer in Nonparticipating Enclosures Definitions of Properties at Interfaces Emissivity Absorptivity Reflectivity Transmissivity at an Interface Relations among Reflectivity, Absorptivity, Emissivity, and Transmissivity Radiative Properties of Opaque Materials Electromagnetic Wave Theory Predictions Extensions of the Theory for Radiative Properties Measured Properties of Real Dielectric Materials Measured Properties of Metals Selective and Directional Opaque Surfaces Configuration Factors for Diffuse Surfaces with Uniform Radiosity Radiative Transfer Equation for Surfaces Separated by a Transparent Medium Geometric Configuration Factors between Two Surfaces Methods for Determining Configuration Factors Constraints on Configuration Factor Accuracy Compilation of Known Configuration Factors and Their References-Appendix C and Web Catalog Radiation Exchange in Enclosures Composed of Black and/or Diffuse-Gray Surfaces Approximations and Restrictions for Analysis of Enclosures with Black and/or Diffuse-Gray Surfaces Radiative Transfer for Black Surfaces Radiation Between Finite Diffuse-Gray Areas Radiation Analysis Using Infinitesimal Areas Computer Programs for Enclosure Analysis Exchange of Thermal Radiation among Nondiffuse Nongray Surfaces Enclosure Theory for Diffuse Nongray Surfaces Directional-Gray Surfaces Surfaces with Directionally and Spectrally Dependent Properties Radiation Exchange in Enclosures with Some Specularly Reflecting Surfaces Net-Radiation Method in Enclosures Having Specular and Diffuse Reflecting Surfaces Multiple Radiation Shields Radiation Combined with Conduction and Convection at Boundaries Energy Relations and Boundary Conditions Radiation Transfer with Conduction Boundary Conditions Radiation with Convection and Conduction Numerical Solution Methods Numerical Integration Methods for Use with Enclosure Equations Numerical Formulations for Combined-Mode Energy Transfer Numerical Solution Techniques Monte Carlo Method Inverse Problems in Radiative Heat Transfer Introduction to Inverse Problems General Inverse Solution Methods Comparison of Methods for a Particular Problem Application of Metaheuristic Methods Unresolved Problems Inverse Problems Involving Participating Media Absorption and Emission in Participating Media Spectral Lines and Bands for Absorption and Emission of Gases Band Models and Correlations for Gas Absorption and Emission Total Gas-Total Emittance Correlations Mean Absorption Coefficients True Absorption Coefficient Radiative Properties of Translucent Liquids and Solids Radiative Transfer Relations in Simple Systems Energy Equation and Boundary Conditions for a Translucent Medium with Radiation Radiative Transfer and Source Function Equations Radiative Flux and its Divergence Within a Medium Summary of Relations for Radiative transfer in Absorbing, Emitting, and Scattering Media Net-Radiation Method for Enclosures Filled with an Isothermal Medium of Uniform Composition Evaluation of Spectral Geometric-Mean Transmittance and Absorptance Factors Mean Beam-Length Approximation for Spectral Radiation From an Entire Volume of a Medium to All or Part of its Boundary Exchange of Total Radiation in an Enclosure by use of Mean Beam Length Energy Transfer in Plane Layers and Multidimensional Geometries: Participating Media with and without Conduction Equations for Radiative Intensity, Flux, Flux Divergence, and Source Function in a Plane Layer Gray Plane Layer of Absorbing and Emitting Medium with Isotropic Scattering Gray Plane Layer in Radiative Equilibrium Radiation Combined with Conduction Multidimensional Radiation in a Participating Gray Medium with Isotropic Scattering Transient Solutions Including Conduction Discussion of Solution Procedures Optically Thin and Thick Limits for Radiative Transfer in Participating Media Optically Thin and Cold Media Optically Thick Medium: Radiative Diffusion Approximations for Combined Radiation and Conduction Approximate Solutions for Combined Radiation, Conduction, and Convection in a Boundary Layer Use of Mean Absorption Coefficients Curtis-Godson Approximation Solution of Radiative Transfer in Participating Media Differential Methods Discrete Ordinates (SN) Method Other Methods that Depend on Angular Discretization Numerical Solution Methods for Combined Radiation, Conduction, and Convection in Participating Media Finite-Difference Methods Finite-Element Method (FEM) Zonal Method Monte Carlo Technique for Radiatively Participating Media Numerical Boundary Conditions and Additional Solution Methods Results for Combined Convection, Conduction, and Radiation Benchmark Solutions for Computational Validation Inverse Problems Involving Participating Media Solution Using Commercially Available and Other Codes Verification, Validation, and Uncertainty Quantification Electromagnetic Wave Theory EM-Wave Equations Wave Propagation in a Medium Laws of Reflection and Refraction Amplitude and Scattering Matrices EM-Wave Theory and the Radiative Transfer Equation Absorption and Scattering by Particles and Agglomerates Absorption and Scattering: Definitions Scattering by Large Spherical Particles Scattering by Small Particles Lorenz-Mie Theory for Spherical Particles Prediction of Properties for Irregularly Shaped Particles Approximate Anisotropic Scattering Phase Functions Dependent Absorption and Scattering Near-Field Thermal Radiation Electromagnetic Treatment of Thermal Radiation and Basic Concepts Evanescent and Surface Waves Near-Field Radiative Heat Flux Calculations Experimental Studies of Near-Field Thermal Radiation Radiative Effects in Translucent Solids, Windows, and Coatings Transmission, Absorption, and Reflection of Windows Enclosure Analysis with Partially Transparent Windows Effects of Coatings or Thin Films on Surfaces Refractive Index Effects on Radiation in a Participating Medium Multiple Participating Layers with Heat Conduction Light Pipes and Fiber Optics Appendix A: Conversion Factors, Radiation Constants, and Blackbody Functions Appendix B: Radiative Properties Appendix C: Catalog of Selected Configuration Factors Appendix D: Exponential Integral Relations and Two-Dimensional Radiation Functions Appendix E: List of References Index

I. Dincer

heat

S. Patankar

Katja Bachmeier

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A. Abdel-Azim

C. Allen, A. Macalady, Haroun Chenchouni et al.

Herbert Oertel

A. Wahid, Sadia Gelani, M. Ashraf et al.

H. S. Carslaw, J. C. Jaeger

M. Caterina, M. Schumacher, M. Tominaga et al.

C. Priestley, R. Taylor

B. Pak, Young I Cho

L. Rosenhead

A. E. Gill

V. Gnielinski

E. K. Webb, G. Pearman, R. Leuning