Hasil untuk "Dictionaries and other general reference works"

Yahya Kardgar

Allusions (kenāyeh) are imaginary elements shared between literary and everyday language. It is natural that, as the contexts for the formation of allusions disappear and the philosophy behind their creation is forgotten, understanding some of them becomes difficult. The allusions that have formed regarding the word "pustin" (a fur or sheepskin garment) belong to this category. The present study, using a descriptive-analytical method, investigates some of the ambiguous allusions centered on "pustin" that have taken shape in Persian literary texts. Deciphering these allusions is instrumental in resolving ambiguity in certain texts. The findings of the research show that imprecision in the critical editing of texts, incorrect readings of texts, the copying and imitation between dictionaries and commentaries, inaccuracy in the reporting of these allusions in dictionaries, and a lack of attention to the specific context of the texts when reporting these allusions have led to the ambiguity and a failure to accurately grasp the meaning of texts that contain this word. Therefore, to resolve these ambiguities, a precise and scientific revision of commentaries and dictionaries, even a lexicon as prominent as the Dehkhoda Dictionary, is necessary and essential. Meanwhile, given the critical editions available for many of the texts from which these allusions were sourced, some of the paths to resolving the ambiguity of these allusions have been cleared. Consequently, it is necessary to rely on these texts to undertake a serious revision of the meaning of existing allusions in reference works and dictionaries. Keywords: Imagery, Allusion (Kenāyeh), Persian Texts, Dictionaries, Pustin. IntroductionThe use of the word "pustin" (fur garment) has a history as long as human history itself and has long served various functions in people’s lives. It is for this reason that diverse manifestations of "pustin" can be seen in the Persian language and literature. In the use of "pustin", a progression from a literal meaning to a symbolic one is evident. In a general overview, "pustin" has functions in various fields of Persian culture, civilization, and literature, the most important of which include: 1) As a type of attire for both war and festivity, which has been prominent from the most ancient historical periods to the present day; 2) As a theme-building element in various literary genres such as mystical, epic, lyrical, didactic, and other literary forms; and 3) It is the raw material for countless literary expressions that manifests itself in the form of various Imagery. What stands out most among the figurative and poetic elements when discussing "pustin" are the allusions that have been formed around it. In this study, several ambiguous allusions in this domain, which have been defined with uncertainty in dictionaries and whose decipherment is useful for understanding some ambiguous sentences and verses in texts, have been examined. Materials and MethodsIn this research, first, the allusions of the word "pustin" in Persian literature were identified by consulting Persian literary texts, dictionaries, and dictionaries of allusions. Then, several allusions that were subjects of debate and for which a precise meaning had not been mentioned in sources and references were examined and analyzed. The description, analysis, and critique of these allusions made a descriptive, analytical, and critical research method unavoidable. Therefore, a combined method was employed to investigate these allusions. Research FindingsPart of the ambiguity in the compounds and allusions recorded in dictionaries, which are sourced from Persian literary texts, is related to the reading of the verse; if the problem in reading the compound is resolved, the issue with the text will also be solved. This is the case of the ambiguity in the compounds "pīl-e postīn", "postīn kardan", and "sūkhtah-ye postīn" (the burnt fur garment). The allusive phrase "postīn be gāzor dādan" (to give the fur garment to the Laundress) and similar constructions are used to mean performing a wrong and inappropriate action. This meaning is expanded in Anvari's poetry, where its individual and social undertones are highlighted. In the poetry of Sanai, within the context of mystical poetry, "pustin" takes on a mystical semantic load and becomes a symbol of material attachments and dependencies. Therefore, in his poetry, "postīn be gāzor dādan", in light of this symbolic meaning, is used in the allusive sense of renouncing attachments, releasing materialism and worldly dependencies. This meaning is also used by Rumi.The allusive phrase "postīn be gāzor dādan" has been used in two different contexts. The first instance is in the works of Amir Mo'ezzi and Anvari, and the second is in Sanai and Rumi, after which this allusive phrase was forgotten in Persian literature. This represents a movement from the material to the metaphysical aspects, for various reasons, including the diminishing relationship between the fur garment and the Laundress. Discussion of Results and ConclusionsAllusion is more closely related to the daily life of humankind than other imagery elements. It is for this reason that as human lifestyles evolve and their perspective on surrounding elements and phenomena changes, the allusions in a language also transform. This point, alongside the freedom of perspective on phenomena in literature, increases the speed at which allusions change. Therefore, to understand texts that deal with allusions, awareness of culture, history, civilization, and human ways of life, and attention to the transformations in these areas, is essential. Inattention to these characteristics, carelessness in the editing and printing of Persian literary texts, imprecision in recording allusions and their meanings in dictionaries, and inattention to the literary genre and the author’s intended goals have caused more errors to occur in the explanation of allusions than in other parts of language and literature.The mentioned mistakes create obstacles for the reader in understanding the precise meaning of texts where an allusion directs its meaning. The examination of several ambiguous allusions centered on "pustin" has shown that to resolve the ambiguity in this area, it is necessary first to provide a correct and reliable edition of the texts, and then, based on these texts and with attention to the context, to provide a precise meaning for the allusions. This meaning should not create complexity in conveying the author’s thought to the audience but should lead to their conviction and, of course, be useful in the scientific analysis of the text and its subtleties.

L. Filipe O. Costa, Francisco Frutos-Alfaro, José Natário et al.

In a recent paper we discussed when it is possible to define reference frames nonrotating with respect to distant inertial reference objects (extension of the IAU reference systems to exact general relativity), and how to construct them. We briefly review the construction, illustrating it with further examples, and caution against the recent misuse of zero angular momentum observers (ZAMOs).

Xiaoming Li, Shiguang Zhang, Shangchen Zhou et al.

Blind face restoration is a challenging task due to the unknown, unsynthesizable and complex degradation, yet is valuable in many practical applications. To improve the performance of blind face restoration, recent works mainly treat the two aspects, i.e., generic and specific restoration, separately. In particular, generic restoration attempts to restore the results through general facial structure prior, while on the one hand, cannot generalize to real-world degraded observations due to the limited capability of direct CNNs’ mappings in learning blind restoration, and on the other hand, fails to exploit the identity-specific details. On the contrary, specific restoration aims to incorporate the identity features from the reference of the same identity, in which the requirement of proper reference severely limits the application scenarios. Generally, it is a challenging and intractable task to improve the photo-realistic performance of blind restoration and adaptively handle the generic and specific restoration scenarios with a single unified model. Instead of implicitly learning the mapping from a low-quality image to its high-quality counterpart, this paper suggests a DMDNet by explicitly memorizing the generic and specific features through dual dictionaries. First, the generic dictionary learns the general facial priors from high-quality images of any identity, while the specific dictionary stores the identity-belonging features for each person individually. Second, to handle the degraded input with or without specific reference, dictionary transform module is suggested to read the relevant details from the dual dictionaries which are subsequently fused into the input features. Finally, multi-scale dictionaries are leveraged to benefit the coarse-to-fine restoration. The whole framework including the generic and specific dictionaries is optimized in an end-to-end manner and can be flexibly plugged into different application scenarios. Moreover, a new high-quality dataset, termed CelebRef-HQ, is constructed to promote the exploration of specific face restoration in the high-resolution space. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed DMDNet performs favorably against the state of the arts in both quantitative and qualitative evaluation, and generates more photo-realistic results on the real-world low-quality images. The codes, models and the CelebRef-HQ dataset will be publicly available at https://github.com/csxmli2016/DMDNet.

M. Schweizer, N. Straumann, A. Wipf

We adapt the post-Newtonian gravitational-radiation methods developed within general relativity by Epstein and Wagoner to the gravitation theory with torsion, recently proposed by Hehl et al., and show that the two theories predict in this approximation the same gravitational radiation losses. Since they agree also on the first post-Newtonian level, they are at the present time - observationally - indistinguishable.

Finnur Ágúst Ingimundarson, Matthew Whelpton

This article discusses a somewhat peculiar “agreement” in Icelandic. In (i) we see such an agreement between the subject, on the one hand, and the finite verb and the predicate, on the other. (i) Englar alheimsins er komin út á ensku. angels.masc.pl of.the.universe is.sg published.fem.sg in English ‘Angels of the Universe has been published in English.’ Interestingly, the head of the subject is in the masculine plural while the finite verb is in the singular and the predicate in the feminine singular. Normally we would have expected the agreement to be as shown in (ii), with the verb and the predicate in the plural and the gender on the latter to be masculine. (ii) Eru englar ódauðlegir? are.pl angels.masc.pl immortal.masc.pl ‘Are angels immortal?’ What is crucial for the agreement pattern in (i), however, is that Englar alheimsins is the title of a book. Even though the noun bók ‘book’ is not visible it seems to directly affect the agreement. In fact, we argue in the article that the structure in examples like (i) contains a concealed or elided noun with which finite verbs, predicates, attributive adjectives, etc., can agree. Such nouns are often found in noun phrases that signify, e.g., titles or proper names that are fairly long, and also in noun phrases that contain foreign words that do not inflect, such as Liverpool or Radiohead. We compare this type of agreement with semantic agreement, such as in (iii), and so-called restaurant talk, as in (iv) (iii) Krakkarnir eru þreytt. the.kids.masc.pl are tired.neut.pl ‘The kids are tired.’ (iv) Ég keypti tvo kaffi. I bought two.masc coffee.neut ‘I bought two cups of coffee.’ We conclude that the agreement of the type in (i) resembles restaurant talk which also seems to involve a concealed noun. We do not, however, argue that semantic agreement contains a concealed noun.

Ari Páll Kristinsson, Birgitta Guðmundsdóttir, Olga M. Cilia et al.

Text comprehension of Icelandic legislative texts was studied qualitatively by interviewing 46 Icelandic speakers individually. The participants read parts of the Icelandic Inheritance Act no. 8/1962 and of the Icelandic Children’s Act no. 76/2003, and subsequently answered questions concerning, on the one hand, the subject matter of the texts and, on the other hand, the participants’ opinions and experience. Although the participants by and large understood the main content of the legal paragraphs, the study revealed that some of the texts could have been made easier for them to read and understand, using shorter sentences, reducing the number of inserted passages, explaining some important concepts, and by choosing more common words. Negative attitude towards legal texts in general surfaced in some interviews, and often the participants seemed to lack self-confidence and certainty about their legal rights and obligations based on what they had read in black and white.

Xiaoming Li, Shiguang Zhang, Shangchen Zhou et al.

To improve the performance of blind face restoration, recent works mainly treat the two aspects, i.e., generic and specific restoration, separately. In particular, generic restoration attempts to restore the results through general facial structure prior, while on the one hand, cannot generalize to real-world degraded observations due to the limited capability of direct CNNs' mappings in learning blind restoration, and on the other hand, fails to exploit the identity-specific details. On the contrary, specific restoration aims to incorporate the identity features from the reference of the same identity, in which the requirement of proper reference severely limits the application scenarios. Generally, it is a challenging and intractable task to improve the photo-realistic performance of blind restoration and adaptively handle the generic and specific restoration scenarios with a single unified model. Instead of implicitly learning the mapping from a low-quality image to its high-quality counterpart, this paper suggests a DMDNet by explicitly memorizing the generic and specific features through dual dictionaries. First, the generic dictionary learns the general facial priors from high-quality images of any identity, while the specific dictionary stores the identity-belonging features for each person individually. Second, to handle the degraded input with or without specific reference, dictionary transform module is suggested to read the relevant details from the dual dictionaries which are subsequently fused into the input features. Finally, multi-scale dictionaries are leveraged to benefit the coarse-to-fine restoration. Moreover, a new high-quality dataset, termed CelebRef-HQ, is constructed to promote the exploration of specific face restoration in the high-resolution space.

L. Tomilenko

Various dictionaries created for peculiar purposes play an important role in obtaining the necessary information as well as the translated general language reference books. Nowadays we observe considerable interest in the lexicographic heritage of the first post-revolutionary years and the times of Ukrainization. Among the popular sources are: «Moscow-Ukrainian Dictionary» (1918) by V. Dubrovskyi, «Russian-Ukrainian Dictionary» (1918) by S. Ivanytskyi and F. Shumanskyi, academic «Russian-Ukrainian Dictionary» (1924–1933) A. Krymskyi and S. Yefremov under ed. Consequently, the above mentioned resources became the subject of our research. The main purpose of this study is to both select and analyze the food and beverages vocabulary which is recorded in these three dictionaries, compare its spelling and word-formation features within the diverse dictionaries of the same timeframe, as well as to trace the usage and fixation of these words in the modern Ukrainian language. Lexicographic works of the post-revolutionary era contain a considerable number of units related to food and beverages. All three dictionaries contain as many as 700 of such units. The vast majority of identified names have remained popular till today, with the exception of some interesting, little-known, rare, dialectal and regional units. According to our estimates, the recorded food vocabulary is quantitatively greater than the amount of units related to beverages. Nevertheless, the analyzed dictionaries highlight a high number of diverse types of beverages, specifically alcoholic ones. The highest toll of units accounts for diversified flour products (including baked, boiled and fried ones). Especially varied are the names of pastries that are intendedly used for daily consumption, although there are also present the names of the festive bread products. Predominantly, it happens to be Ukrainian traditional and well-known till nowadays (in rare cases – foreign) food vocabulary units. Additionally, the analyzed dictionaries show a record of quite a large scale of the animal source foods, including meat and fish ones. A large number of dairy products both raw and cooked are found throughout the research. There are many names of dishes from different vegetables and cereals, for instance – soups, porridges etc. Meat is often supposed to be one of the components of such a meal. The most commonly noticed ingredients include potatoes and cabbage out of vegetables and millet, buckwheat, corn, peas, and oats out of cereals. The names of sweets and desserts which are quite diverse in most of the cases form the long-established and modernly used lexical units. These nouns include both colloquial and non-normative lexemes that have different spelling, grammatical structure and features, etc. Wide group of listings in the analyzed sources is related to the names of drinks. Especially commonly used are the names of alcoholic beverage groups like liqueurs, bitters, wines, varieties of vodka, etc. The names of those beverages vary humongously and arise on the basis of raw material they are made of. Modern lexicographical sources contain both well-known types of these beverages as well as less familiar names. Dictionaries include the names of non-alcoholic hot and cold beverages which are grossly understated compared to other groups. All the topic related names are widely spread and are commonly known. In addition, together with the above mentioned food and beverages vocabulary, the studied sources present us a number of lexemes that are used to have completely different meanings in modern lexicographic sources. The analysis, additionally, demonstrates the words that normally belongs to different lexical and semantic groups, but in the modern Ukrainian vocabulary is also used to define food. This include both ambiguous and homonymous lexemes.

Olga Karpova

The paper is devoted to cultural heritage dictionaries with special reference to the oldest branch of English lexicography – author lexicography, comprising three hundred reference books of different types: concordances, glossaries, lexicons, indices, thesauri, etc. The article describes the main trends in developing author linguistic dictionaries for general and special purposes to single and complete works of G. Chaucer, W. Shakespeare, J. Milton, other famous English writers since the 16th c. up to the present days. The architecture of author encyclopedic dictionaries (guides, encyclopedias, companions) and onomasticons (dictionaries of characters and place names, who is who in … series) and their significant contribution to the English language, culture and society are discussed. The main accent is made on the digital era of English heritage lexicography, innovative features of modern printed and Internet author reference resources, aimed at certain target groups users’ needs and demands.

Ari Páll Kristinsson

Research was carried out into the language use of an Icelandic adult male speaker, the talk show host, former politician and urbanist Gísli Marteinn Baldursson. Three different text genres were analysed: his tweets (4.500 words), his blogs (4.500 words), and text excerpts spoken by him as host in two televised interviews (1.100 words). The study shows that there is clear variation between the different genres in this informant‘s speech (intra-speaker variation), and it is shown how, by means of sociolinguistic competence, the informant employs, switches between, and adapts different styles. The language use is shaped by varying communication situations, potential readers/viewers, the social meaning conveyed, and the three different personae the informant shapes and projects on each different occasion. The variation manifests itself in lexical choices, syntactic structures, and utterance types.

Þóra Björk Hjartardóttir

This study focuses on a particular use of the interrogative pronoun hvað ‘what’ in Icelandic conversation. Besides occurring in open questions (e.g. hvað er þetta ‘what is this’), hvað can also be used as a discourse particle in repair sequences. Such occurrences typically occur in turns that contain either numeral information (time, number or quantity) or names and other specific labels. The following two examples are drawn from the the spoken corpus ÍSTAL: (1) en ég hef einmitt er með hvað tuttuguogeinstommu skjá niðri í vinnu ‘but I have just have hvað twenty one inch screen down at work’, and (2) það heitir (þa-) (m-) eða þarna (niðr-) (það) sem var niðri í bæ hvað þarna Mjölnisholt ‘it is called (i-) (m-) or there (do-) (it) which was downtown hvað there Mjölnisholt’. In (1) and (2), hvað is used to structure a repair sequence that aims at solving problems that have arisen in the flow of the conversation. To be more specific, hvað functions as a repair initiator in self-initiated self-repairs. It is argued, on one hand, that the main role of the particle is to mark a minor inconsistency that may exist between what is said and what is actually the case (1), and, on the other, that the speaker is doing a word-search (2). The empirical data comprises around 20 hours of naturally occurring conversation from the ÍSTAL database recorded in 2000. In total, there are 25 sequences that contain an occurance of hvað as a discourse particle. The theoretical and methodological framework is conversation analysis and interactional linguistics.

Atirkul Egemberdievna Agmanova, Zifa Kakbaevna Temirgazina

The article is timed to coincide with 75th anniversary of Eleonora Dyusenovna Suleimenova, who is a famous scientist of Kazakhstan, Doctor of Philology, academic of International Higher Education Academy. The contribution of E.D. Suleimenova to the development of modern linguistics is considered in the context of her basic multifaceted scientific, educational and social activities. A special attention is paid to the academic’s fundamental works in General and Contrastive Semantics, Sociolinguistics and Theory of Second Language Acquisition. In the present article some practical research results of Suleimenova have been discussed, those of theoretical foundation of lexicographic principles of metalinguistic units and their realization in two language dictionaries, compiled by her guidance (“Glossary in Linguistics”, Languages of peoples of Kazakhstan” Reference book, “Business Language: Kazakh-Russian Dictionary of collocations”, “Glossary of Sociolinguistic terms”). Some other linguistic and educational ideas of the scientist that have been reflected in the textbooks for both school and university students have also been viewed.

Einar Freyr Sigurðsson, Heimir van der Feest Viðarsson

In Modern Icelandic the verb líka ‘like’ occurs with a subject in the dative case and an object in the nominative case. It has been argued that this was also the case in Old Icelandic. In this paper we argue that in contrast to Modern Icelandic, the nominative argument of líka could also constitute the subject during the Old Icelandic period and the dative argument the object. More specifically, we maintain that the verb líka was an alternating (or symmetric) verb where the nominative and the dative argument could raise to the subject position, whereas in Modern Icelandic only the dative is able to raise to the subject position. In other words, we argue that a change in the argument structure of the verb has taken place such that líka has changed from being an alternating (symmetric) verb to an asymmetric oblique subject verb. The main argument that is used to substantiate this claim comes from control infinitives in Old Icelandic, taking on the form in (i): (i) girntiz meirr at líka einum guði en mönnum desired.mid more to PRO.nom like.inf alone.dat god.dat than men.dat ‘(He) desired more to please God alone than men.’ (Æv 150.15) Based on a generative analysis of syntactic structure, we present evidence that reveals that the dative argument functions syntactically as the object, in addition to discussing other potential evidence based on word order. When the nominative argument is the subject, the meaning of 'líka' is sometimes closer to that of English 'please' than 'like'. We also discuss how this might be accounted for.

Matteo Tarsi

The article is concerned with the coexistence and interplay of loanwords and native words (synonymic word pairs) in the Third Grammatical Treatise. The discussion offered in the present article is part of a larger research project on loanwords and native synonyms in Icelandic in the period from the twelfth century to around 1550. The focus of this article is on how loanword/native word pairs appear in the Third Grammatical Treatise and thus on the dynamics at the core of the alternation between loanwords and native words in this work. In addition, the research seeks to establish a relative chronology for the constituents of each word pair. Finally, the dynamics between loanwords and native words in the lexicon are illustrated in a set of generalizations.

Jun-Jie Huang, Pier Luigi Dragotti

In this paper, we introduce a Deep Convolutional Analysis Dictionary Model (DeepCAM) by learning convolutional dictionaries instead of unstructured dictionaries as in the case of deep analysis dictionary model introduced in the companion paper. Convolutional dictionaries are more suitable for processing high-dimensional signals like for example images and have only a small number of free parameters. By exploiting the properties of a convolutional dictionary, we present an efficient convolutional analysis dictionary learning approach. A L-layer DeepCAM consists of L layers of convolutional analysis dictionary and element-wise soft-thresholding pairs and a single layer of convolutional synthesis dictionary. Similar to DeepAM, each convolutional analysis dictionary is composed of a convolutional Information Preserving Analysis Dictionary (IPAD) and a convolutional Clustering Analysis Dictionary (CAD). The IPAD and the CAD are learned using variations of the proposed learning algorithm. We demonstrate that DeepCAM is an effective multilayer convolutional model and, on single image super-resolution, achieves performance comparable with other methods while also showing good generalization capabilities.

C. Alvarado

Some early reference works about psychic phenomena have included bibliographies, dictionaries, encyclopedias, and general overview books. A particularly useful one, and the focus of the present article, is Nandor Fodor’s Encyclopaedia of Psychic Science (n.d., ca. 1933 or 1934). The encyclopedia has more than 900 alphabetically arranged entries. These cover phenomena such as apparitions, auras, automatic writing, clairvoyance, hauntings, materialization, poltergeists, premonitions, psychometry, and telepathy, but also mediums and psychics, researchers and writers, magazines and journals, organizations, theoretical ideas, and other topics. In addition to the content of this work, and some information about its author, it is argued that the Encyclopaedia is a good reference work for the study of developments before its publication, even though it has some omissions and bibliographical problems. Keywords: Encyclopaedia of Psychic Science; Nandor Fodor; psychical research reference works; history of psychical research

O. Gordiyenko

This research was done in the field of theoretical lexicography and reflects the results of one stage of English medical terminography complex study. The work highlights some main approaches to typological classification of general and specialized dictionaries. The paper analyzes traditional typological classifications in general lexicography using a classification approach. It suggests the basic principles of classification in LSP (languages for specific purposes) lexicography of the subject area medicine. The study reveals that the basic principle of the typological classification of English medical reference works is the way of specific term(s) description: the relationship of the term with the concept and the object of description, as well as, the linguistic characteristics of the term as the element of the language for specific purposes.

R. Valdeón

O. Karpova

The article is devoted to the description of new trends in theory and dictionary making process of modern English lexicography. At the same time the paper also covers the main historic steps of formation and development of national English lexicography with special reference to the most reliable English dictionaries for general purposes (early glossaries and concordances, Samuel Johnson’s Dictionary, Oxford English Dictionary, etc.) and special purposes (English writers’ glossaries, concordances, lexicons to the complete and separate works of Chaucer, Shakespeare, and other famous English men of letters). The main accent is made on the digital époque of English national lexicography, describing innovative features of both printed and Internet dictionaries of various types and formats from the point of view of a user studying English as a foreign language. The paper touches upon new branches of English lexicography (collaborative, volunteer) with users’ needs and demands at the centre of dictionary making process.