Liquid–liquid and gas–liquid dispersions in electrochemistry: concepts, applications and perspectives

Electrochemistry plays a pivotal role in a vast number of domains spanning from sensing and manufacturing to energy storage, environmental conservation, and healthcare. Electrochemical applications encompassing gaseous or organic substrates encounter shortcomings ascribed to high mass transfer/internal resistances and low solubility in aqueous electrolytes, resulting in high overpotentials. In practice, strong acids and expensive organic electrolytes are required to promote charge transfer in electrochemical cells, resulting in a high carbon footprint. Liquid–liquid (L–L) and gas–liquid (G–L) dispersions involve the dispersion of a nano/micro gas or liquid into a continuous liquid phase such as micelles, (macro)emulsions, microemulsions, and microfoams stabilised by surface-active agents such as surfactants and colloidal particles. These dispersions hold promise in addressing the drawbacks of electrochemical reactions by fostering the interfacial surface area between immiscible reagents and mass transfer of electroactive organic and gas reactants and products from/to the bulk to/from the electrode surface. This tutorial review provides a taxonomy of liquid–liquid and gas–liquid dispersions for applications in electrochemistry, with emphasis on their assets and challenges in industrially relevant reactions for fine chemistry and depollution.