Kummitused eestivenelaste folklooritekstides: klassifikatsioon, Valgevene ja Eesti paralleelid

We examine materials related to ghosts from the Russian collection of the Estonian Literary Museum, drawing parallels with Belarusian and Estonian traditions. The thematic content is divided into five categories: (1) names and terminology; (2) appearance and attributes; (3) actions toward humans, acoustic and temporal characteristics; (4) places of manifestation; and (5) contemporary typological development of ghosts in media and the tourism industry. While the names in all languages refer to specific perceptions – most commonly visual, i.e., visible beings and phenomena – some terms also imply “doing something” or enchantment, which in turn reflect differing conceptual fields and ontologies: from notions of the soul and its departure at death to contacts with demonic phenomena, the otherworld and the deceased. Various mythological beings appear in ghostly form, vanishing suddenly from human sight. Ghosts may manifest in anthropomorphic or zoomorphic forms, but beyond humans and animals, they also appear as objects like fireballs, shadows, or beings of indeterminate shape. In anthropomorphic descriptions (both male and female), Estonian-Russian narratives often emphasize tall stature, the wearing of hats, or white clothing. Zoomorphic ghosts take the form of virtually all domestic animals – cows, goats, roosters, or pigs. In Estonian and Belarusian folklore, other domestic animals such as horses also appear. Ghosts typically do not cause direct harm to humans, even when they pursue them, but they invariably evoke fear as beings of the otherworld, often associated with demonic realms. Sometimes, ghosts lead people astray, causing them to lose their way or sense of direction. In exceptional cases, ghosts or revenants may be benevolent, though it remains questionable whether such encounters are truly beneficial to the individual. A characteristic feature of ghostly phenomena is the absence or inadequacy of transitional rites (e.g., improper burial), which activates them. Death, as the final major rite of passage, begins during the dying process and continues through the funeral and wake. Violations of ritual or disregard for the wishes of the deceased lead to attempts at continued contact, resulting in hauntings and ghostly experiences. It is also notable that while encounters with revenants may involve specific individuals and miscommunications that are understandable through narrative, most ghostly contacts are singular and anonymous. In Estonian folklore, a significant number of ghostly beings are known to cause confusion and economic damage. Sometimes, ghosts lead individuals astray, causing them to lose their way or sense of direction. In exceptional cases, ghosts or revenants may appear benevolent, though it remains uncertain whether such encounters are truly beneficial to the person involved. Ghosts may be invisible, in which case they are represented by various acoustic features, ranging from human-like sounds (laughter, whistling, moaning) to other noises (creaking, banging, etc.). The typical time of encounter is evening, twilight, or night, though in rare instances, even midday. The most frequently associated locations include cemeteries, graves, places where treasure has been hidden under oath, sites of accidental death or suicide, underground monastery ruins, places where bones remain unburied, and solitary natural settings such as bogs, stones split by lightning, near trees, or bodies of water. A defining characteristic of ghostly manifestations is the absence or inadequacy of transitional rites (e.g., improper burial or umbluu), which activates them. Ghosts cannot be treated as distinct mythological figures such as revenants, forest spirits, or water beings (näkk). Rather, they represent one form of manifestation of any mythological entity – be it a local spirit (genius loci, guardian spirits), impure forces, or restless dead who have been deprived of proper ritual departure. In some examples, we observe transitional forms between different representations: for instance, a girl seen in a bog may be interpreted either as a näkk or a ghost, with the vision being ambivalent – both dangerous and alluring. Particularly intriguing are fire motifs, which on the one hand symbolize the souls of the dead, and on the other hand point to hidden treasures. This is a widely spread genre in folklore that merges the supernatural with the material. Russian folklore in Estonia prior to World War II is especially revealing: it lacks the influence of journalism and radio, which at the time were already shaping oral traditions in towns and settlements. For example, in the rural tradition under study, there are no narratives associated with iconic buildings such as Narva Castle – these motifs only emerge decades later. The texts contain numerous elements characteristic of European folklore in general (e.g., the figure of the “White Lady” or a person dressed in white). At that time, there were no excursions to haunted places – such plotlines were added to the tradition later, and the use of ghost stories in tourism remained quite modest in its early stages. Oral storytelling is a powerful yet flexible cultural form. In addition to reflecting reality, narratives possess their own “life” – they serve as tools for structuring and organizing memories and experiences, guiding their interpretation. Deeper insights into reciprocal cultural influences and the transformation of mythological imagery in new cultural contexts are still awaiting thorough exploration. This is a dynamic phenomenon that differs from traditional discourse. The theme of ghosts is one of the key topics in mythology research that deserves attention – not only due to its significant role in contemporary cultural and societal life, but also because it is central to modern folklore. The region’s history and its narratives reflect the complexity of unresolved historical events. Older stories often address moral norms of their time, issues arising from class and gender differences, and sensitive aspects of human psychology.