Cyber space as the new battlefield: International relations, geopolitics and security in the digital age

The absence of a universally accepted and binding multilateral legal framework increases the risk that cyberspace will continue to be an unregulated domain, primarily driven by the strategic interests of great powers rather than the rule of law. Cyberspace has emerged as a key domain in contemporary international relations, alongside traditional arenas such as land, sea, air and extraterrestrial domains. Rapid advances in information and communication technologies have enabled unprecedented levels of global interconnectedness; however, this progress has simultaneously created opportunities for new forms of conflict and subversive activities. Incidents of cyber attacks targeting critical infrastructure, financial institutions, government agencies and election systems are becoming more frequent and sophisticated, and their origins are often difficult to trace. These developments highlight the urgent need for a comprehensive normative framework that could delineate state responsibilities in the digital domain. This paper examines the application of principles derived from public international law in the context of cyberspace, with particular emphasis on sovereignty, the prohibition of the use of force, the principle of non-interference and the mechanisms for attributing cyber attacks. Special attention was paid to assessing whether existing legal frameworks adequately enable the sanctioning of states that engage in illegal activities in the digital sphere. To this end, relevant international instruments and initiatives are analyzed - including the Budapest Convention, the Tallinn Manual and United Nations resolutions. In addition, significant international cyber incidents, such as the Estonia attacks, Operation Stuknet, and the SolarWinds breach, are discussed as case studies.