Quantification of capillary rise dynamics in snow using neutron radiography

<p>Liquid water flow in snow is important for snow hydrology, remote sensing, and avalanche formation. Water flow in snow is often dominated by capillary effects, which are responsible for the formation of capillary barriers, capillary flow paths, and capillary rise. Unfortunately, there is little quantitative data on the capillary forces of snow, particularly with respect to capillary rise dynamics. Here, we present the results of 4 capillary rise experiments using neutron radiography. The experiments were performed in <span class="inline-formula"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" id="M1" display="inline" overflow="scroll" dspmath="mathml"><mrow><mn mathvariant="normal">13</mn><mo>×</mo><mn mathvariant="normal">13</mn><mo>×</mo><mn mathvariant="normal">1</mn></mrow></math><span><svg:svg xmlns:svg="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="55pt" height="10pt" class="svg-formula" dspmath="mathimg" md5hash="f4ac5dd9c61a1e24aaa7701241619530"><svg:image xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="tc-19-4437-2025-ie00001.svg" width="55pt" height="10pt" src="tc-19-4437-2025-ie00001.png"/></svg:svg></span></span> cm<span class="inline-formula">³</span> glass columns with sand-snow and sand-gravel-snow layering mimicking the capillary forces at the soil-snow interface. Images were taken at 10 to 15 s intervals with a pixel size of 92 <span class="inline-formula">µm</span>. The experiments provided quantitative results of high resolution liquid water profiles, wetting front progression, flow rates, and parameterization of snow hydraulic properties. The experiments showed that the snow properties influenced the capillary rise height while the hydraulic properties of the transitional layer below the snow influenced the flow rates. The saturated hydraulic conductivity values obtained from the experiments were below the expected values from the literature.</p>