Mapping and spatial distribution of relict charcoal hearths across Poland

<p>This study presents the first national-scale spatial inventory of relict charcoal hearths (RCHs) in Poland, based on high-resolution LiDAR data and digital terrain analysis. Using a combination of manual interpretation, GIS-based feature extraction, and <span class="inline-formula"><i>K</i></span>-prototypes clustering, we identified and classified 634 815 RCHs across forested regions of the country. Each feature was georeferenced and categorized by size, morphological characteristics, slope position, and environmental context, including current and potential vegetation and soil types. Spatial analyses revealed significant regional differences in hearth density, with the highest concentrations found in western and south-central Poland, particularly in the Lower Silesian, Stobrawa, and Świętokrzyskie forests. Cluster analysis distinguished three major types of RCHs, differing in their environmental settings and spatial organization: (1) lowland pine-dominated clusters on gentle terrain, (2) isolated features on steep slopes in mixed forests, and (3) high-density hearth groups in elevated areas. Although large portions of the country appear devoid of RCHs, we argue that this reflects limitations in preservation and detection – due to long-term agricultural activity in lowlands and erosion in mountainous areas – rather than an actual absence of charcoal production. The resulting ReCHAR database offers a unique, open-access tool for interdisciplinary research on<span id="page494"/> forest history, human–environment interactions, and early industrial landscapes. Its modular design supports further expansion, including links to historical settlements and industries reliant on charcoal, such as metallurgy, glassmaking, and tar or potash production. The data set is available at <a href="https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15630690">https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15630690</a> (Słowiński et al., 2025).</p>