Performance assessment of state-of-the-art and novel methods for remote compliance monitoring of sulfur emissions from shipping

<p>The fuel sulfur content (FSC) of ocean-going and inland vessels was measured simultaneously by eight different state-of-the-art and novel monitoring systems during a 6-week campaign at the Elbe River, at a distance of about 10 km to the port of Hamburg, Germany. Both stationary and airborne systems on unoccupied aerial vehicles (UAVs) were operated by four participating partners in a side-by-side measurement setup to measure the emission factors of the same emission sources. A novel laser spectrometer, with significantly better-precision specifications as compared with the other instruments, was used for the first time for emission monitoring regarding the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) Annex VI regulations.</p> <p>The comparison took place in the North Sea sulfur emission control area (SECA), where the allowed FSC is limited to 0.10 %S<span class="inline-formula"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" id="M1" display="inline" overflow="scroll" dspmath="mathml"><msub><mi/><mrow><mi>m</mi><mo>/</mo><mi>m</mi></mrow></msub></math><span><svg:svg xmlns:svg="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="21pt" height="11pt" class="svg-formula" dspmath="mathimg" md5hash="d46620e56e765fd38f9c8d14268791bf"><svg:image xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="amt-16-5883-2023-ie00001.svg" width="21pt" height="11pt" src="amt-16-5883-2023-ie00001.png"/></svg:svg></span></span>. The unit %S<span class="inline-formula"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" id="M2" display="inline" overflow="scroll" dspmath="mathml"><msub><mi/><mrow><mi>m</mi><mo>/</mo><mi>m</mi></mrow></msub></math><span><svg:svg xmlns:svg="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="21pt" height="11pt" class="svg-formula" dspmath="mathimg" md5hash="b19afe73e57590c4b97c736eaf3bb8ca"><svg:image xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="amt-16-5883-2023-ie00002.svg" width="21pt" height="11pt" src="amt-16-5883-2023-ie00002.png"/></svg:svg></span></span> relates to the percentage of mass sulfur per mass combusted fuel. In total, 966 plumes that originated from 436 different vessels were analysed in this study. At the same time, fuel samples obtained from 34 different vessels and bunker delivery notes (BDNs) from five frequently monitored vessels were used as a reference to assess the uncertainties of the different systems. Seven of the eight measurement systems tended to underestimate the FSC found from fuel samples and BDNs. A possible relation between underestimation and high relative humidities (above 80 %) was observed. The lowest systematic deviations were observed for the airborne systems and the novel laser spectrometer. The two UAV-borne systems showed total uncertainties of 0.07 %S<span class="inline-formula"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" id="M3" display="inline" overflow="scroll" dspmath="mathml"><msub><mi/><mrow><mi>m</mi><mo>/</mo><mi>m</mi></mrow></msub></math><span><svg:svg xmlns:svg="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="21pt" height="11pt" class="svg-formula" dspmath="mathimg" md5hash="12d9eb1e045e9dfbf3e43b362e1bac69"><svg:image xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="amt-16-5883-2023-ie00003.svg" width="21pt" height="11pt" src="amt-16-5883-2023-ie00003.png"/></svg:svg></span></span> and 0.09 %S<span class="inline-formula"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" id="M4" display="inline" overflow="scroll" dspmath="mathml"><msub><mi/><mrow><mi>m</mi><mo>/</mo><mi>m</mi></mrow></msub></math><span><svg:svg xmlns:svg="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="21pt" height="11pt" class="svg-formula" dspmath="mathimg" md5hash="64d1c2f2157ab0fae55f99226af90828"><svg:image xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="amt-16-5883-2023-ie00004.svg" width="21pt" height="11pt" src="amt-16-5883-2023-ie00004.png"/></svg:svg></span></span> (confidence level: 95 %). The novel laser spectrometer showed the lowest total uncertainty of 0.05 %S<span class="inline-formula"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" id="M5" display="inline" overflow="scroll" dspmath="mathml"><msub><mi/><mrow><mi>m</mi><mo>/</mo><mi>m</mi></mrow></msub></math><span><svg:svg xmlns:svg="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="21pt" height="11pt" class="svg-formula" dspmath="mathimg" md5hash="f6a086359958896bd31e89ca64f333f0"><svg:image xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="amt-16-5883-2023-ie00005.svg" width="21pt" height="11pt" src="amt-16-5883-2023-ie00005.png"/></svg:svg></span></span> compared with other stationary sniffer systems, whose total uncertainties range from 0.08 %S<span class="inline-formula"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" id="M6" display="inline" overflow="scroll" dspmath="mathml"><msub><mi/><mrow><mi>m</mi><mo>/</mo><mi>m</mi></mrow></msub></math><span><svg:svg xmlns:svg="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="21pt" height="11pt" class="svg-formula" dspmath="mathimg" md5hash="3933bf24559a5b385df23d2566053ef8"><svg:image xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="amt-16-5883-2023-ie00006.svg" width="21pt" height="11pt" src="amt-16-5883-2023-ie00006.png"/></svg:svg></span></span> to 0.09 %S<span class="inline-formula"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" id="M7" display="inline" overflow="scroll" dspmath="mathml"><msub><mi/><mrow><mi>m</mi><mo>/</mo><mi>m</mi></mrow></msub></math><span><svg:svg xmlns:svg="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="21pt" height="11pt" class="svg-formula" dspmath="mathimg" md5hash="5b5407bc33f1105224b11c2c0c09701d"><svg:image xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="amt-16-5883-2023-ie00007.svg" width="21pt" height="11pt" src="amt-16-5883-2023-ie00007.png"/></svg:svg></span></span>. It was concluded that non-compliant vessels, with an actual FSC of the combusted fuel above 0.15 %S<span class="inline-formula"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" id="M8" display="inline" overflow="scroll" dspmath="mathml"><msub><mi/><mrow><mi>m</mi><mo>/</mo><mi>m</mi></mrow></msub></math><span><svg:svg xmlns:svg="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="21pt" height="11pt" class="svg-formula" dspmath="mathimg" md5hash="497ee8ad7aecf72119e4d7e462f0cddd"><svg:image xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="amt-16-5883-2023-ie00008.svg" width="21pt" height="11pt" src="amt-16-5883-2023-ie00008.png"/></svg:svg></span></span> to 0.19 %S<span class="inline-formula"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" id="M9" display="inline" overflow="scroll" dspmath="mathml"><msub><mi/><mrow><mi>m</mi><mo>/</mo><mi>m</mi></mrow></msub></math><span><svg:svg xmlns:svg="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="21pt" height="11pt" class="svg-formula" dspmath="mathimg" md5hash="8ee6f6e31a799e6b3f6dd39aa9709da4"><svg:image xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="amt-16-5883-2023-ie00009.svg" width="21pt" height="11pt" src="amt-16-5883-2023-ie00009.png"/></svg:svg></span></span>, can be detected by the compared systems with 95 % confidence.</p>