Chinese <i>Wu</i>, Ritualists and Shamans: An Ethnological Analysis

The relationship of <i>wu</i> (巫) to shamanism is problematic, with virtually all mentions of historical and contemporary Chinese <i>wu</i> ritualists translated into English as shaman. Ethnological research is presented to illustrate cross-cultural patterns of shamans and other ritualists, providing an etic framework for empirical assessments of resemblances of Chinese ritualists to shamans. This etic framework is further validated with assessments of the relationship of the features with biogenetic bases of ritual, altered states of consciousness, innate intelligences and endogenous healing processes. Key characteristics of the various types of <i>wu</i> and other Chinese ritualists are reviewed and compared with ethnological models of the patterns of ritualists found cross-culturally to illustrate their similarities and contrasts. These comparisons illustrate the resemblances of pre-historic and commoner <i>wu</i> to shamans but additionally illustrate the resemblances of most types of <i>wu</i> to other ritualist types, not shamans. Across Chinese history, <i>wu</i> underwent transformative changes into different types of ritualists, including priests, healers, mediums and sorcerers/witches. A review of contemporary reports on alleged shamans in China also illustrates that only some correspond to the characteristics of shamans found in cross-cultural research and foraging societies. The similarities of most types of <i>wu</i> ritualists to other types of ritualists found cross-culturally illustrate the greater accuracy of translating <i>wu</i> as “ritualist” or “religious ritualist.”