Graphene and Its Derivatives as Modulators of Macrophage Polarization in Cutaneous Wound Healing

Graphene-based materials (GBMs), owing to their excellent biomedical properties, can significantly advance the development of nano-biodressings. Their unique physicochemical features, such as high surface area, tunable functionalization, antimicrobial activity, and ability to interact with immune cells, suggest that GBMs may influence key biological processes involved in tissue repair, particularly the immune response. Building on this growing evidence, the aim of this review is to demonstrate that GBMs can serve as tools for modulating macrophage polarization as a strategy for promoting wound healing. We present the mechanisms by which GBMs penetrate macrophages and discuss the effects of GBMs, either in suspension or as scaffolds/grounds/substrates, on macrophage polarization. Moreover, we propose mechanisms underlying the actions of different forms of GBMs on macrophage polarization. Nevertheless, a multitude of uncertainties and significant challenges remain. Chief among these are the pronounced heterogeneity of GBM subtypes, the necessity for exhaustive characterization and in-depth analysis, the formulation of robust experimental designs, and the careful selection of models capable of accurately delineating macrophage populations and guiding their polarization toward achieving targeted wound healing outcomes. This review attempts to systematize and clarify these issues.