Forensic gemmological investigation based on optical and crystal-chemical changes in topaz from Ouro Preto and Caraí, Brazil, induced by heat treatment

Abstract Topaz is frequently subjected to heat treatment and irradiation to enhance colour, particularly to produce the market’s most preferred salmon pink and sky blue varieties. However, an insufficient description of these processes can lead to fraudulent practices. This experimental and forensic mineralogical and gemmological study investigates eighteen heat-treated topaz samples from Ouro Preto (OP) and Caraí (CA), Brazil, using electron microanalysis, LA-ICP-MS, Raman, and optical absorption spectroscopy before and after heat treatment at various temperatures. The most significant optical changes were observed at 300 °C when the CA sample lost its colour from sky blue to colourless, while OP samples retained their imperial orange colour up to 500 °C before transitioning to pink at 700 °C. Chemically, the CA samples are rich in F (> 1.8 apfu) with low trace element concentration (Fe ≤ 125 ppm, Ge ≤ 153 ppm), falling to the pegmatite and greisen field of topaz origin. The OP samples contain less F (1.4–1.5 apfu) but higher trace element contents (Cr up to 204 ppm, Ti up to 115 ppm, Fe, Mn, Ge < 64 ppm), consistent with a hydrothermal origin. Raman spectra show no significant inter-sample variation, but their luminescence spectra feature strong differences: Mn acts as the luminophore in CA samples, while Cr3+ centers dominate in OP samples. The optical absorption spectra reveal distinct thermal responses. The OP samples heated to temperatures ≥ 500 °C developed new absorption bands at 530–532 nm, consequently resulting in a visible pink colour. On the other hand, the CA spectra exhibit strong absorption in the NIR region; the unheated sample has a broad absorption band at 634 nm, responsible for the sky-blue colour of topaz. Heating ≥ 300 °C eliminates the transmission window in the blue to cyan regions, removing blue colouration. These thermal-optical signatures serve as indicators of heat treatment in topaz declared from these two localities. Moreover, the combination of spectroscopic methods, which we successfully applied in recognizing heat treatment on the studied samples, provides a systematic approach for identifying treatment in topaz and potentially other gemstones.