Global fruit production: environmental footprints, regional variability, and sustainability hotspots

Fruits are vital for healthy diets, yet their environmental impacts on a global scale are still not well understood. Our study fills this knowledge gap by systematically reviewing life-cycle analyses of results from 113 life-cycle assessment (LCA) studies covering 15 major fruit species across six key environmental impact categories. Results show substantial variation in yields and environmental impacts across species, regions, and production systems, driven by climate, soil conditions, and management practices. High-yielding fruits such as pineapple and apple (0.10 and 0.15 kg CO2e/kg, respectively) generally release fewer greenhouse gases than low-yielding crops like avocado and berry (0.48 and 0.44 kg CO2e/kg, respectively). Environmental footprints vary widely across countries—for example, apple carbon footprints range from 0.04 to 3.01 kg CO2e/kg. Production-weighted global averages indicate a carbon footprint of 0.31 kg CO2e/kg, acidification of 3.48 g SO2e/kg, eutrophication of 2.23 g PO4e/kg, blue water use of 0.13 m3/kg, land use of 0.49 m2·a/kg, and human toxicity of 0.09 kg 1,4-DBe/kg. However, some impact categories like carbon footprint have been studied more frequently than others, with data gaps remaining particularly significant for the toxicity and eutrophication impacts of fruits such as avocado, cherry, and plum. By synthesizing results across fruit types, regions, and multiple impacts, our study reveals opportunities for targeted interventions and best-practice transfer to improve sustainability across the global fruit sector.