RETRACTED ARTICLE: Sustainable farming in Kilombero district, Tanzania: a comparative profitability study of agroforestry (Acacia albida–pigeon peas intercrop) and continuous monocropping systems

Abstract Agriculture in Tanzania faces the dual challenge of ensuring food security and improving rural incomes, yet many smallholder farmers remain trapped in low-return monocropping systems that undermine soil health and long-term sustainability. Agroforestry has been promoted as a viable alternative, but evidence on its financial performance compared to monocropping remains limited. This study examines the comparative profitability of agroforestry specifically the Acacia albida–pigeon pea intercrop and continuous monoculture systems in Kilombero District, Tanzania. The analysis focuses on cost structures, revenue generation, and overall financial sustainability. A cross-sectional research design was adopted, involving 394 households selected through purposive and random sampling methods. Data were analyzed using gross margin analysis and linear multiple regression models to assess profitability determinants. Results show that the Acacia albida–pigeon peas agroforestry system outperforms continuous monocropping in terms of financial returns. Agroforestry yielded higher total revenue (152.3 USD) and gross margin (76.6 USD) compared to continuous monocropping (133.4 USD and 50.1 USD, respectively). Additionally, profitability and efficiency ratios indicate superior economic viability for the agroforestry system, demonstrated through higher total revenue, gross margins, and profitability ratios. While factors such as source of finance and labor type significantly influenced continuous monocropping profitability, no significant profitability determinants were identified for agroforestry. The study highlights the financial and ecological advantages of integrating Acacia albida with pigeon peas, reinforcing the role of agroforestry in promoting sustainable livelihoods and resilience among smallholder farmers in Tanzania.