Ecosystems in the Anthropocene: transformative drivers

Human activity has an enormous impact on Earth, changing organisms, environments and landscapes, leading to the decline of original ecosystems and irreversible changes that create new combinations of living beings and materials. As a result, ecosystems with new properties and new species pools are emerging. Here, we explore a set of transformative drivers, which can act either individually or in synergy. The expansion of novel ecosystems (hybrids of natural and agricultural systems) is a sign of irreversible, human-induced change. Human growth, adaptation to climate change, urban expansion and geoengineering are powerful transformative drivers which are expected to have a high impact, creating novel ecosystems. In contrast, less transformative drivers such as degrowth, biocentrism, ecological restoration and low-impact agriculture can mitigate human impacts, leading to adaptation, resilience and sustainability, while conserving original ecosystems. This requires a new approach, incorporating new ecological, ethical and cultural perspectives, to keep ecosystems functional and healthy.